Practical considerations for electron therapy planning and preparation

This Clinic recently commissioned its first electron beams for radiation therapy. Over the past twelve months at this institution, we have developed devices and techniques to obtain precise and reproducible electron therapy treatments. These devices and methods have been used in the treatment of irregularly shaped fields for areas of complex shape, or those adjacent to critical or radiosensitive tissues and areas where it has been cosmetically unsuitable for patients to carry treatment field markings. This paper describes the techniques used in six representative cases with due consideration to physics, dosimetry and practical aspects. Several recommendations result from our experiences here.     

基于元启发策略的肿瘤调强放疗自动计划方法

目的提出一种基于元启发策略的放疗自动计划方法(ATP-STAR),并验证其有效性。方法ATP-STAR方法的主要过程为先对优化参数进行向量化编码,采用高斯卷积修正优化参数,再利用模拟退火选择备选优化参数向量集,结合射野通量优化,并行探索最优的优化参数组合,实现计划自动试错。选取20例肿瘤个体化差异较大的病例进行方法测试。邀请具备5年以上临床工作经验的物理师进行人工计划设计。人工计划和ATP-STAR计划均基于开源matRad计划系统完成,射野及处方剂量与临床治疗计划保持一致。分析不同病种ATP-STAR与人工计划的靶区和危及器官剂量学差异。结果对靶区而言,ATP-STAR计划的均匀性优于人工计划(脑瘤:z=2.28,P=0.022;肺癌:z=2.29,P=0.022;肝癌:z=2.11,P=0.035),脑瘤和肝癌ATP-STAR计划的适形性与人工计划相当,肺癌ATP-STAR计划的适形性略差于人工计划(z=2.29,P=0.022)。对脑瘤的危及器官而言,相比于人工计划,ATP-STAR计划的左眼晶状体Dmean平均受量由2.19 Gy降至1.76 Gy(z=2.28,P=0.022),左视神经Dmean由11.36 Gy降至10.22 Gy(z=2.28,P=0.022),右视神经Dmax由32.92 Gy降至29.97 Gy(z=2.10,P=0.036),垂体Dmax由39.53 Gy降至35.21 Gy(z=2.29,P=0.022)。对肺癌的危及器官而言,ATP-STAR计划的脊髓Dmax平均受量由38 Gy降至31.17 Gy(z=2.12,P=0.034),双肺Dmean由8.51 Gy降至8.07 Gy(z=2.29,P=0.022),心脏Dmean由3.21 Gy降至2.69 Gy(z=2.29,P=0.022)。对肝癌的危及器官而言,ATP-STAR计划的脊髓Dmax由18.19 Gy降至14.76 Gy(z=2.11,P=0.035),肝脏Dmean由15.61 Gy降至14.45 Gy(z=2.11,P=0.035),肾脏Dmean由4.76 Gy降至4.04 Gy(z=2.10,P=0.036)。结论ATP-STAR方法较少依赖人工计划设计经验,易于推广,有望改善调强放疗计划质量及一致性,并节省临床人力和时间成本。     

Inverse planning algorithms for external beam radiation therapy.

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) is a new treatment technique that has the potential to produce superior dose distributions to those of conventional techniques. An important step in IMRT is inverse planning, or optimization. This is a process by which the optimum intensity distribution is determined by minimizing (or maximizing) an objective function. For radiation therapy, the objective function is used to describe the clinical goals, which can be expressed in terms of dose and dose/volume requirements, or in terms of biological indices. There are 2 types of search algorithms, stochastic and deterministic. Typical algorithms that are currently in use are presented. For clinical implementations, other issues are also discussed, such as global minimum vs. local minima, dose uniformity in the target and sparing of normal tissues, smoothing of the intensity profile, and skin flash. To illustrate the advantages of IMRT, clinical examples for the treatment of the prostate, nasopharynx, and breast are presented. IMRT is an emerging technique that has shown encouraging results thus far. However, the technique is still in its infancy and more research and improvements are needed. For example, the effects of treatment uncertainties on the planning and delivery of IMRT requires further study. As with any new technology, IMRT should be used with great caution.     

Usefulness of intensity-modulated radiation therapy for breast conserving radiation therapy: a three-dimensional treatment planning system comparison of irradiation methods

Until recently, conservative radiation therapy of breast cancer using a wedge-filter combined with rectangular tangential irradiation was widely carried out. This method of irradiation creates uniform dose distribution in the target, minimizing the radiation dose to the lung. However, this method of irradiation results in many cases in which the amount of dose in the irradiated area differs as a result of the shape and size of the breast. It is necessary to prevent excessive doses from reaching the lung. IMRT ensures a uniform dose to the target. Therefore, IMRT was examined because of the possibility that the normal tissue dose can be effectively utilized in cases of conservative radiation therapy of breast cancer by providing a minimum dose. To compare the irradiation of each method of rectangular tangential irradiation, an electronic compensator (ELC), and IMRT, which uses Dynamic MLC, we evaluated target dose uniformity, standard deviation, and target differential DVH in 13 examples. We evaluated the lung dose of the irradiated side (V(30), 30 Gy volume) of the lung to the volume of the lung on the irradiated side based on the report of Hernando.(6)) With this method of irradiation, irrespective of the difference in the shape and size of the target, dose uniformity with ELC was very good. IMRT can reduce the lung dose in comparison with the other irradiation methods. However, it is apt to cause a high-dose area in the irradiation field. In addition, it affects the target and the skin-extracting contour, and the dose to the skin surface declines. Although ELC cannot offer lung doses that are as low as those of IMRT, most of the 13 examples planned for cure with ELC showed rates of 22% of V(30) and below. In conservative radiation therapy of breast cancer, ELC is more effective than the rectangular tangential irradiation method and IMRT.     

Small cell undifferentiated carcinoma of the maxillary sinus: technical considerations for radiation therapy

Treatment principles for extrapulmonary small cell undifferentiated carcinoma follow those established for primary lung presentations including systemic chemotherapy and prophylactic cranial irradiation. Radiation of carcinoma involving the maxillary sinus includes lateral and anterior portals which exit through the brain. Presented is a treatment strategy used for postoperative radiation of small cell undifferentiated carcinoma of the maxillary sinus in conjunction with prophylactic cranial irradiation. Specifics of dosimetry include achievement of 55 to 60 Gy within the tumor volume of the maxillary sinus, while achieving homogeneity of dose (30 Gy) within the cranial contents. Application of the described technique to analogous clinical presentations is also discussed.     

Computer applications in radiation therapy treatment planning

A virtual revolution in computer capability has occurred in the last few years, based largely on rapidly decreasing cost and increasing reliability of digital memory and mass storage capability. These developments have now made it possible to consider the application of both computer and imaging technology to a much broader range of problems in radiation therapy including dose computation, therapy planning and treatment verification. In this paper, a review of the current status in the United States of dose computational algorithms for photon beam and electron beams and treatment planning display is presented.     

Localization of the apex of the vagina: implications for radiation therapy planning.

PURPOSE: To evaluate (a) the displacement of the vaginal apex by a rod during radiation therapy simulation for gynecologic malignancy and (b) apical localization with implanted radiopaque markers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Metallic markers were implanted in the cervix or vaginal cuff in nine patients with cervical or endometrial carcinoma who underwent irradiation. In all but one patient, radiographs were obtained with and then without the vaginal rod. Displacement of the markers relative to bone landmarks was measured. The total displacement was the square root of the sum of the squares of displacement in each axial direction. RESULTS: All patients showed displacement of the cervical markers by the vaginal rod (mean total displacement, 1.9 cm; range, 0.6-3.6 cm). The greatest displacement was cephalic (mean, 1.5 cm; range, 0.5-2.4 cm). Anteroposterior displacement occurred in all patients but was not as predictable as cephalic displacement. Displacement was anterior in five of the eight patients, posterior in three patients, and lateral in four patients. CONCLUSION: Displacement of the vaginal apex and/or cervix with placement of the vaginal rod during simulation was marked in all patients. Use of implanted cervical markers to localize the vaginal apex or the cervix during simulation is more accurate than use of a vaginal rod.     

External beam planning module of Eclipse for external beam radiation therapy

Eclipse is a 3-dimensional (3D) treatment planning system for radiation therapy offered by Varian Medical Systems, Inc. The system has the network connectivity for the electronic transfer of image datasets and digital data communication among different equipment. The scope of this project for this special issue of Medical Dosimetry on 3D treatment planning systems is the assessment of planning tools in the external beam planning module of Eclipse to generate optimized treatment plans for patients undergoing external beam radiation therapy. This treatment planning system is relatively mature to be able to generate (1) simple treatment plans, (2) conformal radiation therapy plans, (3) static intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) plans, (4) volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT) plans, and (5) treatment plans for electron beam therapy. The treatment planning tools are relatively plentiful to assist in the radiation therapy treatment planning. Some new features have been incorporated in the latest version and are helpful for making high-quality treatment plans. However, the location of the tools is not intuitive, and hence, familiarity with the user interface is essential to the efficient use of the treatment planning system. In addition, there are a number of dose algorithms available for the computation of dose distributions. The understanding of each dose computation algorithm is essential for the optimal use of this treatment planning system.     

基于盆腔迭代锥形束CT图像的剂量学可行性分析

目的 研究利用盆腔迭代锥形束CT（CBCT）图像用于治疗计划剂量计算的可行性分析，为自适应放疗提供图像保障。方法 使用Varian Halcyon 2.0环形加速器对CIRS 062 M模体（CIRS，Norfolk，VA，USA）进行扫描，测量其不同散射条件下的CT值并计算其平均值，建立锥形束CT-电子密度转换曲线（iterative Cone-beam CT to electron density，ICBCT-ED）。采集CIRS 002PRA盆腔调强专用模体的CT和不同位置的ICBCT图像，设计基于CT图像的VMAT计划，移植至ICBCT图像上，重新进行剂量计算，比较靶区、危及器官及三维体积剂量γ通过率的差异。以患者实际治疗计划为基准，回顾性分析10例盆腔患者全流程三维剂量γ通过率的差异。结果 无散射体的孤立模式与全散射中心位置的CT值偏差较大，最大偏差144 HU。其他全散射位置与中心位置CT值相近，最大偏差<50 HU。基于盆腔模体不同位置处的ICBCT图像的计算结果，无论靶区还是危及器官的剂量偏差均<1 Gy。与基于CT图像的计划相比，基于ICBCT图像的三维剂量γ通过率1%/1 mm和2%/2 mm的平均值分别为（88.86±1.18）%和（98.38±0.89）%。10例盆腔肿瘤患者2%/2 mm和3%/3 mm的平均值范围分别为90.03%~95.43%和93.58%~97.78%。最差结果为膀胱过充盈引起的外轮廓变化造成的剂量差异，2%/2 mm和3%/3 mm的三维剂量通过率仅为85.90%和92.90%。结论 在足够的散射条件下，重建ICBCT-ED转换曲线，利用Halcyon直线加速器的ICBCT图像进行治疗计划设计，其精度是可以满足临床应用的标准的，为将来的自适应放疗提供了保障。     

Image correlation techniques in radiation therapy treatment planning

A technique to spatially correlate multi-modality or serial imaging studies of the head is described. Surface fitting of a well defined structure in different imaging studies is used to determine the optimal three dimensional transformation between the coordinate systems. The transformation is then used to map volumes of interest between studies or to reslice the studies along comparable planes. The approach is feasible in the presence of variations in slice thickness, pixel size, imaging plane, or head position, and for correlations between different modalities. Correlations have been performed between serial CT, CT/MRI, and PET/CT/MRI studies. Phantom studies and clinical cases are presented. Accuracy is typically on the order of the sum of the pixel sizes between studies. Applications in radiation therapy treatment planning are described.