How to recognise a 'quality' grounded theory research study.

BACKGROUND: The quality of a research study is a key issue for clinical practitioners committed to the delivery of 'best-practice' patient care. With the increasing use of grounded theory in nursing research, attention is now focusing on the quality of studies using this research methodology. Indeed, within the growing body of grounded theory in nursing some methodological problems are emerging that raise questions about the quality of the research. AIM: This paper recognises that clinical practitioners need to be critical readers of grounded theory research, so that they recognise 'quality' research studies and can develop their clinical practice based on sound research findings. CONCLUSION: Grounded theory should be viewed as a package of research methods that includes the use of concurrent data collection and constant comparative analysis, theoretical sampling and memoing, all of which can create an awareness and an appreciation of the scientific merit required of grounded theory research and promote quality standards relating to research practices in grounded theory methodology.     

Discriminating among grounded theory approaches

To rationalize the selection of a research methodology, one must understand its philosophical origins and unique characteristics. This process can be challenging in the landscape of evolving qualitative methodologies. Grounded theory is a research methodology with a distinct history that has resulted in numerous approaches. Although the approaches have key similarities, they also have differing philosophical assumptions that influence the ways in which their methods are understood and implemented. The purpose of this discussion paper is to compare and contrast three widely used grounded theory approaches with key distinguishing characteristics, enabling a more thoughtful selection of approach. This work contributes to the existing literature through contrasting classic Glaserian grounded theory, Straussian grounded theory, and constructivist grounded theory in a systematic manner with prominent distinguishing characteristics developed from a review of the literature. These characteristics included historical development, philosophical perspective, role of the researcher, data analysis procedures, perspective of the grounded theory, and strengths/critique. Based on this analysis, three considerations are proposed to direct the methodological choice for a study: purpose, philosophy, and pragmatics. Understanding the similarities and differences in the grounded theory approaches can facilitate methodological transparency and determine the best fit for one's study and worldview as a researcher.     

Grounded theory: a qualitative research methodology for physical therapy

The interest in grounded theory methodology for physical therapy research has grown in recent years. Grounded theory is a qualitative research methodology, initially developed by sociologists Barney Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss. Significant variations in the approach were later introduced by Strauss and Corbin. The intent of grounded theory methodology is to generate a theory relating to a particular situation. Other distinguishing features of this method include the use of open-ended questioning, the synthesis of data collection with analysis, the use of theoretical sampling, and the systematic procedures for data collection, analysis, and theory development. The purposes of this article are to introduce the tenets of the grounded theory methodology, to present examples of how the methodology can be applied to physical therapy research, and to suggest criteria for evaluating grounded theory studies.     

Challenges of the grounded theory approach to a novice researcher

The grounded theory approach has been used in nursing research since 1970. The latest methodological books describe the research process in detail. However, there are many problems involved in the grounded theory approach, which especially need to be considered by a novice researcher. One of these problems is the question of how deeply and widely the researcher should familiarize her- or himself with the research topic before the empirical study. The problems also include the need to focus the research problem and to choose the sampling method. Data analysis is a multistage process, which demands from the researcher both sensitivity and time to work out the findings which emerge from the data. In this paper, the grounded theory approach is described as a process undertaken by the novice researcher. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the challenges of the grounded theory approach and the problems encountered by a researcher using the method for the first time.     

Designing a grounded theory study: some practicalities

Grounded theory is an interpretative research methodology frequently used by social science researchers seeking to discover the underlying social processes shaping interaction. The methodology is useful to create knowledge about the behavioural patterns of a group. The aim of this paper was to discuss some practical issues that the prospective grounded theory researcher planning a small-scale project may consider. Discussion focuses on the basic premises, choosing a version of grounded theory, the research problem, the purpose of study, the research question and the place of the literature in a study. The specific skills required of the grounded theory researcher are considered and some cautions are exercised. The paper may assist student researchers in a critical care setting and may be of interest to their supervisors and experienced. grounded theory researchers.     

Using a synthesised technique for grounded theory in nursing research

Aims. To introduce a synthesised technique for using grounded theory in nursing research. Background. Nursing increasingly uses grounded theory for a broadened perspective on nursing practice and research. Nurse researchers have choices in how to choose and use grounded theory as a research method. These choices come from a deep understanding of the different versions of grounded theory, including Glaser’s classic grounded theory and Strauss and Corbin’s later approach. Design. Grounded theory related literature review was conducted. Methods. This is a methodological review paper. Results. Nursing researchers intent on using a grounded theory methodology should pay attention to the theoretical discussions including theoretical sampling, theoretical sensitivity, constant comparative methods and asking questions, keeping memoranda diagramming, identification of a core category and a resultant explanatory theory. A synthesised approach is developed for use, based on Strauss and Corbin’s style of sampling and memoranda writing, but selecting theoretical coding families, that differ from the paradigm model of Strauss and Corbin, from the wide range suggested by Glaser. This led to the development of a multi‐step synthesised approach to grounded theory data analysis based on the works of Glaser, Charmaz and Strauss and Corbin. Conclusions. The use of this synthesised approach provides a true reflection of Glaser’s idea of ‘emergence of theory from the data’ and Strauss and Corbin’s style of sampling and memoranda writing is employed. This multi‐step synthesised method of data analysis maintains the philosophical perspective of grounded theory. Relevance to clinical practice. This method indicates how grounded theory has developed, where it might go next in nursing research and how it may continue to evolve.     

Introduction to grounded theory

Grounded theory, first developed by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s, was introduced into nursing education as a distinct research methodology in the 1970s. The theory is grounded in a critique of the dominant contemporary approach to social inquiry, which imposed "enduring" theoretical propositions onto study data. Rather than starting from a set theoretical framework, grounded theory relies on researchers distinguishing meaningful constructs from generated data and then identifying an appropriate theory. Grounded theory is thus particularly useful in investigating complex issues and behaviours not previously addressed and concepts and relationships in particular populations or places that are still undeveloped or weakly connected. Grounded theory data analysis processes include open, axial and selective coding levels. The purpose of this article was to explore the grounded theory research process and provide an initial understanding of this methodology.     

Conducting a longitudinal study: an unsanitized account*

Sanitized accounts of research add little to the literature describing ‘how’ research is actually ‘done’ This paper explores issues which emerged during the course of a longitudinal study which described the experiences of a cohort of 23 student nurses during their 3-year training for registration as general nurses in the United Kingdom The approach used was that of grounded theory The students' changing perspectives were collected by the researcher utilizing participant observation and unstructured interview in various clinical settings In recognition of the fact that this is a ‘reflexive’ account it is written in the first person Issues addressed include my ‘immersion’ in the research process, my relationship with the students, the challenges which derive from researching in a shifting context and the use of grounded theory within the context of the study (All the names of students involved in the study are pseudonyms)     

A synthesis technique for grounded theory data analysis

AIMS: The purposes of this paper are to examine the issues surrounding current changes in grounded theory (GT) research methods and to explicate an innovative synthesis technique to GT data analysis. BACKGROUND: In recent years there has been a steady rise in the number of published research reports that use the GT method. However, this growing body of GT literature has been criticized for its lack of adherence to the method as explicated by its originators, Glaser and Strauss. METHODS: Recent and past literature that explicates, describes, and discusses GT methods is reviewed. A synthesis technique for grounded theory data analysis was developed to analyse qualitative data collected for a grounded theory study on caregiving. This synthesis technique was derived from the works of four grounded theorists (Kathy Charmaz, Mark Chesler, Juliet Corbin and Anselm Strauss). RESULTS: The lack of clarity and the inconsistencies surrounding GT analysis, as reported in the literature, resulted in the development of a synthesis technique based on the works of the aforementioned-grounded theorists. The product was a synthesis approach that included analytical steps from each of these authors. CONCLUSIONS: This synthesis approach increased understanding and enhanced clarity of GT data analysis techniques. This paper illustrates how integration of works by noted qualitative scholars is an appropriate and effective means to advance the discourse on data analysis for GT research studies.     

Grounded theory research: literature reviewing and reflexivity

AIM: This paper is a report of a discussion of the arguments surrounding the role of the initial literature review in grounded theory. BACKGROUND: Researchers new to grounded theory may find themselves confused about the literature review, something we ourselves experienced, pointing to the need for clarity about use of the literature in grounded theory to help guide others about to embark on similar research journeys. DISCUSSION: The arguments for and against the use of a substantial topic-related initial literature review in a grounded theory study are discussed, giving examples from our own studies. The use of theoretically sampled literature and the necessity for reflexivity are also discussed. Reflexivity is viewed as the explicit quest to limit researcher effects on the data by awareness of self, something seen as integral both to the process of data collection and the constant comparison method essential to grounded theory. CONCLUSION: A researcher who is close to the field may already be theoretically sensitized and familiar with the literature on the study topic. Use of literature or any other preknowledge should not prevent a grounded theory arising from the inductive-deductive interplay which is at the heart of this method. Reflexivity is needed to prevent prior knowledge distorting the researcher's perceptions of the data.     

Conceptions of the nursing process amongst nurse teachers and clinical nurses

This is a report of an empirical study whose aim was to investigate the conceptual nature of the nursing-process approach to the delivery of nursing care. The report includes a selective review of the literature on the subject to determine how the nursing-process approach is characterized by people who write about it. Details of the grounded theory research methodology used are outlined. So are the hierarchically focused interviews used to collect the data. Details of the data analysis are also given, including the use of a cluster analysis technique. In the results section, areas of concordance between conceptions of the nursing-process approach as they appear in the literature and those held by the interviews have been identified. Areas where conceptions are at variance with those in the literature have also been identified.     

'Becoming a mother'— developing a new theory of early motherhood

This paper explains the methods used in a grounded theory analysis of the experience of 55 first-time mothers in Australia, presented in the first of this series of two papers. The categories identified in the research are realising, readiness, drained, aloneness, loss and working it out, encompassed in the core category becoming a mother. Specifically, this paper extends the analysis and explains the application of a'paradigm model' and the identification of a Basic Social Process (BSP). The paper links the analysis to the literature on early motherhood from nusing, midwifery, feminist, and sociological research. A substantive theory is proposed to explain women's experience in becoming mothers that demonstrates how, when responsive to the needs of those researched, a grounded theory analysis can provide a framework for nursing and midwifery care.     

Rigour and grounded theory research

BACKGROUND: Grounded theory methodology is a suitable qualitative research approach for clinical inquiry into nursing practice, leading to theory development in nursing. Given the variations in, and subjectivity attached to, the manner in which qualitative research is carried out, it is important for researchers to explain the process of how a theory about a nursing phenomenon was generated. Similarly, when grounded theory research reports are reviewed for clinical use, nurses need to look for researchers' explanations of their inquiry process. AIM: The focus of this article is to discuss the practical application of grounded theory procedures as they relate to rigour. METHOD: Reflecting on examples from a grounded theory research study, we suggest eight methods of research practice to delineate further Beck's schema for ensuring, credibility, auditability and fittingness, which are all components of rigour. FINDINGS: The eight methods of research practice used to enhance rigour in the course of conducting a grounded theory research study were: (1) let participants guide the inquiry process; (2) check the theoretical construction generated against participants' meanings of the phenomenon; (3) use participants' actual words in the theory; (4) articulate the researcher's personal views and insights about the phenomenon explored; (5) specify the criteria built into the researcher's thinking; (6) specify how and why participants in the study were selected; (7) delineate the scope of the research; and (8) describe how the literature relates to each category which emerged in the theory. CONCLUSIONS: The eight methods of research practice should be of use to those in nursing research, management, practice and education in enhancing rigour during the research process and for critiquing published grounded theory research reports.     

Interviewing in phenomenology and grounded theory: is there a difference?

This paper explores the differences and similarities that may exist in respect of using the interview method in phenomenological and grounded theory methodologies. Baker et al. set out to differentiate between method in grounded theory and phenomenology and concluded that it was essential to ensure that the method matches the research question being asked. However, the paper, whilst clear in intent to differentiate between the methodologies of phenomenology and grounded theory, does little to help the researcher in the differences that may exist in carrying out such research using the same method, that is, interviewing. Interviewing has become synonymous with qualitative research and may become the accepted method of data collection irrespective of methodology. We postulate that the interview as a method of data collection may be inconsistent with the underlying principles of the methodology (phenomenology or grounded theory). Should this be the case then the interview as a means of collecting data may be viewed as generic and lack a clear connection to the methodological framework. Such a position could be consistent with a critique of qualitative nursing research on the grounds of rigour.     

Intentional Modelling: A Process for Clinical Leadership Development in Mental Health Nursing

Clinical leadership is becoming more relevant for nurses, as the positive impact that it can have on the quality of care and outcomes for consumers is better understood and more clearly articulated in the literature. As clinical leadership continues to become more relevant, the need to gain an understanding of how clinical leaders in nursing develop will become increasingly important. While the attributes associated with effective clinical leadership are recognized in current literature there remains a paucity of research on how clinical leaders develop these attributes. This study utilized a grounded theory methodology to generate new insights into the experiences of peer identified clinical leaders in mental health nursing and the process of developing clinical leadership skills. Participants in this study were nurses working in a mental health setting who were identified as clinical leaders by their peers as opposed to identifying them by their role or organizational position. A process of intentional modeling emerged as the substantive theory identified in this study. Intentional modeling was described by participants in this study as a process that enabled them to purposefully identify models that assisted them in developing the characteristics of effective clinical leaders as well as allowing them to model these characteristics to others. Reflection on practice is an important contributor to intentional modelling. Intentional modelling could be developed as a framework for promoting knowledge and skill development in the area of clinical leadership.     

A corporate college of nursing and midwifery philosophy: a strategy for managing change

This paper is an account of the process of identifying a college of nursing and midwifery corporate philosophy. This process represents one component of a change strategy for managing an amalgamation between three schools of nursing to form one college of nursing and midwifery. The paper is divided into four sections: Literature review, Methodological approach, Lessons learned and Managing change: a way forward. The literature review draws on what is described, in general education, as the school/college 'effectiveness literature'. This literature emphasises why the building of corporate norms is so important and that real change in the organization of a college cannot occur without the college redefining its commitments. A methodological approach embedded in grounded theory is described. This approach facilitated the discovery of colleagues' views from their perspective, and within their working context. It also enabled all the staff to take part in the process of identifying a corporate philosophy, which would subsequently underpin the college's educational policy and practice. This process was therefore conceptualised as an attempt to provide 'ownership' for a working corporate philosophy. In the final section it is suggested that many of the theories of change nurse and midwifery educators draw upon are conceptually and practically inadequate, as a basis for action in the socio-political climate of the 1990s. Effective approaches to the management of multiple changes calls for combining and balancing factors that do not apparently go together--in essence a dialectical approach to the management of change in nurse and midwifery education.