Assessment of Full-time Faculty Preceptors By Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy in the United States and Puerto Rico

Objective. To identify the manner in which colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States and Puerto Rico assess full-time faculty preceptors. Methods. Directors of pharmacy practice (or equivalent title) were invited to complete an online, self-administered questionnaire.Results. Seventy of the 75 respondents (93.3%) confirmed that their college or school assessed full-time pharmacy faculty members based on activities related to precepting students at a practice site. The most commonly reported assessment components were summative student evaluations (98.5%), type of professional service provided (92.3%), scholarly accomplishments (86.2%), and community service (72.3%). Approximately 42% of respondents indicated that a letter of evaluation provided by a site-based supervisor was included in their assessment process. Some colleges and schools also conducted onsite assessment of faculty members.Conclusions. Most colleges and schools of pharmacy assess full-time faculty-member preceptors via summative student assessments, although other strategies are used. Given the important role of preceptors in ensuring students are prepared for pharmacy practice, colleges and schools of pharmacy should review their assessment strategies for full-time faculty preceptors, keeping in mind the methodologies used by other institutions.     

Faculty perceptions of the Educating Pharmacy Students to Improve Quality (EPIQ) program

Objective. To investigate users’ initial perceptions of and potential applications for the Educating Pharmacy Students and Pharmacists to Improve Quality (EPIQ) program, a 5-module education program designed to educate pharmacists and pharmacy students about quality improvement in pharmacy practice.Methods. The 5-module EPIQ program was distributed to pharmacy faculty members, pharmacy practitioners, and other health professionals across the country upon request. A 6-item survey instrument was sent to the first 97 people who requested the program.Results. Twenty-seven (56%) of the 55 respondents had reviewed the EPIQ program and 22 (82%) intended to use some or all of the content to teach about quality improvement or patient safety primarily in pharmacy management and medication safety courses.Conclusion. Initial perceptions of the EPIQ program were positive; however, further evaluation is needed after more extensive implementation of the program in pharmacy colleges and schools and other settings.     

An Educational Tool for Teaching Medication History Taking to Pharmacy Students

Objective. To implement and evaluate the use of a situated-learning experience to prepare second-year pharmacy students to conduct medication history interviews in preparation for introductory pharmacy practice experiences (IPPE) at ambulatory clinic sites.Design. Second-year doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students (n=200) used the Medication Mysteries Infinite Case Tool, a game-like educational tool in which groups of 3 students assumed the roles of pharmacist, patient, and observer and rolled a die and drew cards to determine the drugs, patient personality, medication problems, and other variables that guided a medication history taking session.Assessment. After the laboratory session, faculty members assessed students’ medication history-taking skills. One hundred sixteen (58%) and 78 (39%) of 200 students achieved excellence or competence, respectively, on the final assessment. Two weeks after the assessment, 53 of 200 (26.5%) students completed a survey instrument. The respondents indicated that their self-confidence in conducting medical history taking significantly improved following completion of the learning experience.Conclusion. Using the Medication Mysteries Infinite Case Tool increased students’ confidence and skills in conducting medication history taking prior to their clinical IPPE experience.     

A collaborative approach to improving and expanding an experiential education program

The lessons learned from a collaboration between a faculty of pharmacy and a practice site that involved implementation of an innovative experiential placement model are described, as well as the broader impact of the project on other practice sites, the faculty of pharmacy's experiential education program, and experiential placement capacity. The partnerships and collaborative strategies formed were key to the implementation and evaluation of a pharmacy student clinical teaching unit pilot program and integration of concepts used in the unit into the advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) program to enhance capacity and quality. The university-practice partnerships have made it possible to promote the delegation of responsibility and accountability for patient care to students, challenge the anticipated workload burden for preceptors, question the optimal length of an APPE placement, and highlight the value of higher student-to-preceptor ratios that facilitate peer-assisted learning (PAL) and optimize the practice learning experiences for preceptors and students. Collaboration in experiential education between universities and practice sites can provide opportunities to address challenges faced by practitioners and academics alike.     

An introductory pharmacy practice experience on improving medication adherence

Objective. To evaluate the impact of a medication adherence activity on introductory pharmacy practice experience students’ perceptions of patient adherence as well as student development of empathy and confidence in patient counseling.Design. Students participated in a personal medication simulation using an automated medication dispenser. Students then identified a patient with nonadherence and provided counseling on use of the dispenser. After 4 to 6 weeks, students interviewed the patient about their experience with the dispenser and assessed changes in adherence.Assessment. One hundred fifty-three students completed the assignment and 3 surveys instruments. Following the experience, the majority of students agreed or strongly agreed that they developed more empathy for patients with multiple medications and felt confident counseling a patient in the use of a dispenser (92.0% and 88.2%, respectively). Most students (91.4%) reported feeling that their patient education session was successful.Conclusion. An introductory pharmacy practice experience involving an automated medication dispenser and patient counseling to improve medication adherence resulted in the development of empathy and improved student confidence.     

Learning Styles and Teaching Perspectives of Canadian Pharmacy Practice Residents and Faculty Preceptors

Objective. To characterize and compare learning styles of pharmacy practice residents and their faculty preceptors, and identify teaching perspectives of faculty preceptors.Methods. Twenty-nine pharmacy residents and 306 pharmacy faculty members in British Columbia were invited to complete the Pharmacists’ Inventory of Learning Styles (PILS). Faculty preceptors also were asked to complete the Teaching Perspectives Inventory (TPI).Results. One hundred percent of residents and 61% of faculty members completed the PILS, and 31% of faculty members completed the TPI. The most common dominant learning style among residents and faculty preceptors was assimilator, and 93% were assimilators, convergers, or both. The distribution of dominant learning styles between residents and faculty members was not different (p=0.77). The most common dominant teaching perspective among faculty members was apprenticeship.Conclusion. Residents and preceptors mostly exhibited learning styles associated with abstract over concrete thinking or watching over doing. Residency programs should steer residents more toward active learning and doing, and maximize interactions with patients and other caregivers.     

Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences in Pharmacogenomics Offered by US Pharmacy Programs

Objective. To characterize advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics at schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States.Methods. This was a cross-sectional, multicenter, observational study of pharmacogenomics APPEs at US pharmacy schools. Directors of experiential education at 146 accredited schools of pharmacy were contacted by phone and asked if their school offered a pharmacogenomics APPE. The preceptors of pharmacogenomics APPEs identified by this phone screen were sent an email with a link to an online survey that asked about their APPE offerings.Results. Of the 142 schools of pharmacy that were successfully reached via phone, 40 (28%) offered an APPE with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics. Thirty unique APPEs with pharmacogenomics as a primary focus were identified. The total number of preceptors involved in the pharmacogenomics APPEs was 33: 19 (58%) faculty preceptors and 14 (42%) non-faculty preceptors. Twenty-three of the 30 pharmacogenomics APPEs completed the survey (77% response rate). The APPE sites were diverse and included academic medical centers, community health systems, pharmacogenomic testing laboratories, and schools of pharmacy. Each pharmacogenomics APPE accommodated an average of six students per year. The APPE activities varied across sites.Conclusion. Only a small number of US pharmacy schools offer an APPE with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics. These rotations are diverse in scope and precepted by faculty or non-faculty pharmacists. The Academy should pursue opportunities to increase experiential education in pharmacogenomics.     

Development and implementation of a curricular-wide electronic portfolio system in a school of pharmacy

The Feik School of Pharmacy collaborated with a commercial software development company to create a Web-based e-portfolio system to document student achievement of curricular outcomes and performance in pharmacy practice experiences. The multi-functional system also could be used for experiential site selection and assignment and continuing pharmacy education. The pharmacy school trained students, faculty members, and pharmacist preceptors to use the e-portfolio system. All pharmacy students uploaded the required number of documents and assessments to the program as evidence of achievement of each of the school's curricular outcomes and completion of pharmacy practice experiences.     

Education,Training, and Academic Experience of Newly Hired,First-Time Pharmacy Faculty Members

Objective. To describe the education, training, and academic experiences of newly hired faculty members at US colleges and schools of pharmacy during the 2012-2013 academic year.Methods. A survey regarding education, training, and academic experiences was conducted of all first-time faculty members at US colleges and schools of pharmacy hired during the 2012-2013 academic year.Results. Pharmacy practice faculty members accounted for the majority (68.2%) of new hires. Ambulatory care was the most common pharmacy specialty position (29.8%). Most new faculty members had a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) as their terminal degree (74.8%), and 88.3% of pharmacy practice faculty members completed a residency. Of new faculty members who responded to the survey, 102 (67.5%) had at least 3 prior academic teaching, precepting, or research experiences.Conclusion. New faculty members were hired most frequently for clinical faculty positions at the assistant professor level and most frequently in the specialty of ambulatory care. Prior academic experience included precepting pharmacy students, facilitating small discussions, and guest lecturing.     

Pharmacy Student and Preceptor Impressions of Faculty Liaison Visits to Experiential Training Sites

Objective. To characterize preceptor and student views about and experiences with faculty liaison visits to practice sites during clinical internships.Methods. A survey was administered at the conclusion of each of the first 3 academic years of a new postbaccalaureate doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program.Results. Preceptors were satisfied overall with faculty liaison visits, while students initially were not; however, their perception increased in subsequent years. Students felt development of their patient care skills benefited, but less so their interpersonal communication skills. Each year, almost all preceptors indicated faculty liaison visits were helpful in developing and refining their mentorship skills.Conclusion. Faculty liaison visits provided a valuable opportunity to interact and support preceptors and students during advanced pharmacy internships in a nascent PharmD program.     

Projected growth in pharmacy education and research, 2010 to 2015

Objectives. To determine projected growth in pharmacy education and research from 2010 to 2015 and to relate findings to external and internal factors.Methods. An e-mail survey instrument was sent to all US pharmacy deans, and responses were used to estimate growth in the number of first-professional-degree doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) graduates, residents/fellows, graduate students, faculty members, graduate research faculty members, and postdoctoral fellows. Results were related to the national economy, trends in faculty vacancies, growth trends in other health professions, pharmacist roles, and healthcare reform.Results. Five-year growth projections were: 58% increase in the number of residents/fellows, 23% in postdoctoral fellows, 21% in entry-level PharmD graduates, 19% in graduate/research faculty members, 17% in graduate students, and 13% in total pharmacy faculty members. Residencies/fellowships showed the highest projected growth rates (58%). Graduate education and research data suggest a growing research enterprise. Faculty vacancy trends were downward and this suggests better faculty availability in coming years.Conclusions. Substantial growth is expected from 2010 to 2015 in all areas of pharmacy education. External factors and how well the profession is able to demonstrate its contribution to resolving healthcare problems may influence the actual growth rates achieved.     

Orientating Nonpharmacist Faculty Members to Pharmacy Practice

Objective. To design, implement, and evaluate a faculty development program intended to orient nonpharmacist faculty members to pharmacy practice.Design. A multifaceted program was implemented in 2012 that included 4 shadowing experiences in which faculty members visited acute care, ambulatory care, hospital, and community pharmacy settings under the guidance of licensed preceptors. Itineraries for each visit were based on objective lists of anticipated practice experiences that define the role of the pharmacist in each setting.Assessment. The 4 shadowing experiences culminated with reflection and completion of a survey to assess the impact of the program. All of the faculty participants agreed that the experience improved their conceptual understanding of contemporary pharmacy practice and the role of the pharmacist in the healthcare setting. The experience also improved faculty comfort with creating practice-relevant classroom activities.Conclusions. A shadowing experience is an effective way of orienting nonpharmacist faculty members to the practice of pharmacy. This program inspired the creation of an experience to introduce pharmacy practice faculty to pharmaceutical science faculty research initiatives.     

Potential Cost Avoidance of Pharmacy Students’ Patient Care Activities During Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objectives. To evaluate the potential cost avoidance of student interventions documented by fourth-year (P4) student pharmacists during advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) in outpatient and inpatient settings.Methods. The school-wide Web-based intervention database was retrospectively analyzed to review characteristics of interventions documented during the 2011-2012 APPE cycle. Potential cost avoidance for interventions was derived from a comprehensive literature review and adjusted to 2011 dollars based on the consumer price index for medical care.Results. Eighty-seven students (71% of the graduating class) documented 5,775 interventions over 36 weeks, with an estimated potential total cost avoidance of $908,800. The intervention categories associated with the greatest cost avoidance were prevention of adverse drug events, provider education, and patient education.Conclusions. Fourth-year student pharmacists and their preceptors had a positive impact, contributing to potential cost avoidance in both the inpatient and outpatient pharmacy settings.     

Perceptions and Use of iPad Technology by Pharmacy Practice Faculty Members

Objectives. To explore the potential of tablet technology to address the specific workload challenges of pharmacy practice faculty members and to evaluate tablet usage after a department-wide iPad initiative.Methods. After conducting a needs assessment to determine pharmacy faculty attitudes towards tablet technology and to identify potential usage scenarios, all faculty members in a department of pharmacy practice received an iPad. After iPad distribution, training sessions and virtual tutorials were provided. An anonymous survey was administered to evaluate the pilot.Results. The needs assessment survey revealed positive attitudes towards iPad technology, identified use scenarios, and led to a department-wide iPad pilot program. Most faculty members used iPads for connectivity with students (86%), paper/project annotation (68%), assessment (57%), and demonstration of tools used in practice (36%). For teaching, 61% of faculty members used iPads in seminars/laboratories, 57% used iPads in the experiential setting, and 43% used iPads in the classroom. Use of iPads for patient-care activities varied and depended on site support for mobile technology. The 23 faculty members with external practice sites used iPads to a greater extent and had more positive attitudes towards this technology compared with campus-based faculty members.Conclusion. Integration of tablet technology into the pharmacy education setting resulted in faculty-reported increased productivity and decreased paper waste. It also allowed faculty members to experiment with new teaching strategies in the classroom and experiential setting. Administrators at institutions exploring the use of tablet technology should allocate resources based on faculty needs and usage patterns.     

Comparison of Introductory Pharmacy Practice Experiences Among US Pharmacy Programs

Objective. To identify the various IPPE designs utilized by US pharmacy programs.Methods. A 20-question survey was developed and distributed to experiential affairs professionals at 129 pharmacy institutions nationwide addressing school demographics and IPPE design. Results were analyzed in aggregate.Results. Ninety-three schools responded (72%). Eighty-nine percent of those reported beginning IPPE experiences in the first professional year, although there was a great variation regarding whether the IPPE was held while didactic classes were in session or during school breaks. The number of required practice experiences varied. Institutions prohibited students from completing rotations in the same pharmacy chain (72%) or hospital (70%) where employed, and from completing 2 rotations at the same site (62%). Fifty-seven percent utilized faculty members as preceptors. 51% allowed a maximum of 2 students per preceptor per practice experience.Conclusion. While clear trends existed in IPPE curricula, institutions incorporated aspects that addressed unique needs. Further research can determine the benefits and drawbacks of different IPPE designs.     

A shared assignment to integrate pharmaceutics and pharmacy practice course concepts

Objective

To demonstrate for first-year pharmacy students the relevance of pharmaceutics course content to pharmacy practice by implementing a joint, integrated assignment in both courses and assessing its impact.

Design

Medication errors and patient safety issues relevant to ophthalmic and otic formulations were selected as the assignment topic. A homework assignment based on a mock court case involving a patient who was given an inappropriate formulation because of a pharmacist''s medication error was given to students. The scenario was followed by essay and calculation questions linking physical pharmacy concepts with patient safety recommendations.

Assessment

Students’ average score on the crossover assignment was 88.7%. Minute papers completed before and after the assignment showed improvement in student learning. Students’ scores on examination questions related to the assignment topic were significantly higher than the previous year''s students’ performance on similar questions. In a survey conducted at the end of the semester, 91% of students indicated that the assignment helped them relate the covered topics to future practice, and 98% agreed that the assignment emphasized the importance of the pharmaceutics in professional practice.

Conclusion

A crossover assignment was an effective means of demonstrating the connection between specific pharmaceutics concepts and practice applications to pharmacy students.     

药物治疗高血压用药依从性危险因素调查及药学干预

目的:探讨影响高血压患者用药依从性的危险因素以及药学干预提升药物治疗高血压的临床疗效。方法:从964例高血压患者中选取具有两项以上用药依从性危险因素的高血压患者328例,按照随机分组方式将患者分为观察组和对照组,每组164例。对照组维持原来的用药依从特点,对观察组进行药学干预,持续干预12周。对两组患者的药物效果和用药依从性进行测评和对比分析。结果:高血压用药依从性危险因素主要包括初中以下文化程度、40岁以下年龄和65岁以上年龄、两种以上药物联用、服药时间3年以上、家庭收入不满意、日服药次数3次及以上。通过药学干预观察组用药综合有效率(显效+有效)达到84.15%,用药依从性达到(86.47±13.48)%,与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:高血压治疗必须综合考虑患者各项影响因素,并进行针对性的干预,提升患者用药依从性。     

Identifying Priority Student Leadership and Professionalism Attributes Among Faculty,Preceptors, and Students via Modified Delphi

Objective. To identify and build consensus on priority leadership and professionalism attributes for pharmacy student development among faculty, preceptors, and students.Methods. One hundred individuals (27 faculty members, 30 preceptors, 43 students) were invited to participate in a three-round, modified Delphi. Published literature on leadership and professionalism informed the initial attribute list. In the first round, participants reviewed and provided feedback on this list. In the second round, participants prioritized attributes as highly important, important, or less important for pharmacy student development. Leadership and professionalism attributes that achieved an overall consensus (a priori set to ≥80.0%) of being highly important or important for pharmacy student development were retained. In the third round, participants rank ordered priorities for leadership and professionalism attributes.Results. Fifteen leadership and 20 professionalism attributes were included in round one while 21 leadership and 21 professionalism attributes were included in round two. Eleven leadership and 13 professionalism attributes advanced to round three. Consensus was reached on the top four leadership attributes (adaptability, collaboration, communication, integrity) and five professionalism attributes (accountability, communication, honor and integrity, respect for others, trust). Differences were observed for certain attributes between faculty members, preceptors, and/or students.Conclusion. The modified Delphi technique effectively identified and prioritized leadership and professionalism attributes for pharmacy student development. This process facilitated consensus building and identified gaps among stakeholders (ie, faculty, preceptors, students). Identified gaps may represent varying priorities among stakeholders and/or different opportunities for emphasis and development across classroom, experiential, and/or cocurricular settings.     

A Three-Year Reflective Writing Program as Part of Introductory Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objectives. To implement and evaluate a 3-year reflective writing program incorporated into introductory pharmacy practice experiences (IPPEs) in the first- through third-year of a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program.Design. Reflective writing was integrated into 6 IPPE courses to develop students’ lifelong learning skills. In their writing, students were required to self-assess their performance in patient care activities, identify and describe how they would incorporate learning opportunities, and then evaluate their progress. Practitioners, faculty members, and fourth-year PharmD students served as writing preceptors.Assessment. The success of the writing program was assessed by reviewing class performance and surveying writing preceptor’s opinions regarding the student’s achievement of program objectives. Class pass rates averaged greater than 99% over the 8 years of the program and the large majority of the writing preceptors reported that student learning objectives were met. A support pool of 99 writing preceptors was created.Conclusions. A 3-year reflective writing program improved pharmacy students’ reflection and reflective writing skills.     

An introductory pharmacy practice experience providing pharmaceutical care to elderly patients

Objective. To develop, integrate, and assess an introductory pharmacy practice experience (IPPE) in providing pharmaceutical care to patients at senior centers (Silver Scripts).Design. First-year pharmacy students learned and practiced the pharmaceutical care process in the classroom to prepare for participation in the Silver Scripts program, in which the students, under faculty mentorship, conducted comprehensive medication reviews for senior citizens attending senior centers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.Assessment. Students, preceptors, and senior center staff members indicated the experience was positive. Specifically, first-year students felt they gained benefit both from an educational standpoint and in their own personal growth and development, while staff contacts indicated the patients appreciated the interaction with the students.Conclusion. The Silver Scripts experience is a model for linking classroom experiences and experiential learning. The cycle of experiencing, reflecting, and learning has provided not only a meaningful experience for our P1 students but also a worthwhile focused review of seniors’ medication use. This experience could be used as a model for other colleges and schools of pharmacy and their communities.