Comparison of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MEE), ribotyping, restriction enzyme analysis (REA) and phage typing for typing of Listeria monocytogenes.

The discriminatory power of four methods for typing of Listeria monocytogenes was compared. The four methods were multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MEE), ribotyping, restriction enzyme analysis (REA), and a newly developed Danish phage typing system. Ninety-nine human clinical, food and slaughterhouse isolates of Listeria monocytogenes were typed by each method. The most discriminatory single typing method was phage typing with an overall discriminatory index (DI) of 0.88 followed by REA, MEE and ribotyping with DI-values at 0.87, 0.83 and 0.79 respectively. Considering strains from each of the two predominant O-serotypes alone, serotype 1 was best discriminated by the molecular typing methods, in particular REA, which showed a DI of 0.92. The serotype 4 strains were best discriminated by phage typing (DI = 0.78). If two or more typing methods were combined, the combination of REA and MEE were found to be the most discriminatory combination. The DI values were 0.96, 0.74 and 0.90 for serotype 1, 4, and both combined, respectively. Phage typing is a rapid and inexpensive typing method but not as reproducible as the molecular typing methods. It is the most suitable method for mass screening. In situations where results are required to be highly reliable, i.e. when studying the relationships between only a few strains, a single or a combination of molecular typing methods should be used, preferable MEE and REA.     

Comparison of SDS-PAGE protein patterns with other typing methods for investigating the epidemiology of 'Klebsiella aerogenes'

Twenty-four cultures comprising 20 clinical isolates of 'Klebsiella aerogenes' from two hospitals, a reference strain of 'K. aerogenes' and the type strains of three other Klebsiella species, were characterized by one-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of whole-cell proteins. The protein patterns were highly reproducible and were used as the basis of a numerical analysis which divided the clinical isolates into 12 protein types. Comparison with established typing methods indicated that the level of discrimination of SDS-PAGE was similar to that achieved with conventional typing methods but the strains were grouped differently. Protein typing subdivided five serotype K3 isolates that could also be distinguished by phage typing. Conversely, three strains of protein type 11 were clearly distinguishable by both serotyping and phage typing. We conclude that high-resolution SDS-PAGE of proteins provides an effective adjunct to other methods for typing isolates of 'K. aerogenes'.     

Evaluation of numerical analysis of SDS-PAGE of protein patterns for typing Enterobacter cloacae

Twenty cultures comprising 13 clinical isolates of Enterobacter cloacae from two hospitals, the type and another reference stain of E. cloacae and the type strains of four other Enterobacter sp. and of Escherichia coli, were characterized by one-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of whole-cell proteins. The protein patterns were highly reproducible and were used as the basis of a numerical analysis which divided the clinical isolates into nine clearly defined protein types. Comparison with established typing methods indicated that the discrimination of SDS-PAGE was similar to that achieved with conventional typing methods and all strain groups recognized by combined sero/phage typing were also found by SDS-PAGE. In addition, protein typing sub-divided a group of four serotype O3 isolates that were difficult to distinguish by phage typing. We conclude that high-resolution SDS-PAGE of proteins provides an effective method of typing isolates of E. cloacae.     

肠炎沙门菌多位点序列分型技术的研究

目的研究肠炎沙门菌菌株间的分子特征,建立了分子流行病学研究方法——多位点基因序列分型技术(MLST),并对食品中的肠炎沙门菌分离株进行分型研究。方法选择肠炎沙门菌的6个管家基因thrA、purE、sucA、aroC、hemD、dnaN及一个特异性的DNA标记SdfΙ作为目标基因。对上述基因分别进行PCR扩增及产物测序,用sequencer2.0软件对测序结果进行分析、比对核苷酸的差异。同时,将肠炎沙门菌株与GenBank中鼠伤寒沙门菌LT2相应的基因序列进行比较。结果在肠炎沙门菌标准菌株50041和18株食品分离株之间,6个基因PCR产物范围内的近60000个核苷酸序列完全相同,未观察到同一血清型内的基因突变。而与LT2相比,基因产物发生了1到6个点突变。在对SdfΙ的核苷酸序列比较研究中发现,肠炎沙门菌标准菌株与食品中分离株SdfΙ的核苷酸序列与GenBank中该序列的碱基对比,发生了C182T的点突变。即MLST技术揭示了在同一血清型内各菌株管家基因碱基序列的高度保守。结论MLST方法适用于不同血清型沙门菌株间的分型研究,而不适于同一血清型的菌株分型。     

多位点序列分型和脉冲场凝胶电泳在肠炎沙门菌分子分型的比较

目的 比较多位点序列分型技术和脉冲场凝胶电泳（PFGE）技术在肠炎沙门菌菌株间分型的分辨率。方法 分别建立肠炎沙门菌的6个管家基因thrA、pure、sucA、aroC、hemD、dnaN和一个特异性的DNA标记Sdf Ⅰ的多位点序列分型技术，及以寡切点的XbaⅠ、SpeⅠ作为限制性内切酶的PFGE方法，并应用上述方法对食品中的分离株进行分型，比较两种方法的分辨率。结果 PFGE可以将50株肠炎沙门菌分为11个型。并且通过双酶系统的双重PFGE分型，还可以将PFGE型别再精细划分为亚型；MLST则揭示了在同一血清型内部，各菌株之间的管家基因碱基序列高度保守，而在沙门菌不同血清型的核苷酸序列之间，则分别存在不同数量的碱基差异。即MLST方法只能用于血清型之间，不能在血清型内部进行分型研究。结论 与MLST比较，PFGE方法在肠炎沙门菌的分型方面显示了比较高的分辨率。     

Epidemiological aspects of group B streptococci of bovine and human origin.

Restriction fragment length polymorphism of the gene encoding rRNA (ribotyping) was used in combination with conventional epidemiological markers to study phenotypic variations among Streptococcus agalactiae of bovine origin and the possible epidemiological interrelationship between the bovine and human reservoirs of Streptococcus agalactiae. The bovine material constituted 53 strains (9 antigen combinations) isolated from 11 herds. Herds with a uniform as well as heterogenic antigenic pattern were included. Furthermore, strains isolated in the course of time from the same persistently infected quarters were examined. The human material constituted 16 strains, 4 each of 4 serotypes, isolated from healthy carriers. Finally, nine serotype- and the group reference strains were examined. All strains were serotyped by double diffusion in agarose gel, biotyped (lactose +/-), and ribotyped using two restriction enzymes, Hind III and HhaI. All isolates could be typed by ribotyping and seven ribotypes were identified among the reference strains. The restriction enzymes used alone or in combination gave typing results that allowed discrimination between and within serotype. Combined use of serotype, Hind III and HhaI ribotypes produced 11 types among the 16 human strains. Ribotype analysis discriminated between herds infected with the same serotype. Strains of varying antigenic patterns from the same herd had the same ribotype. Phenotypic variations in serotype observed in persistent intramammary infection were not related to genetic changes as monitored by ribotype. Two ribotypes were represented among both bovine and human strains. The discriminating capability of lactose fermentation was of limited value.     

Interpretation of band differences to distinguish strains of Serratia marcescens by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of XbaI DNA digests

The number of band differences in DNA macrorestriction profiles required to distinguish unrelated strains from an index strain varies in an outbreak with the species and restriction enzyme used. In order to define this difference for epidemiological studies of Serratia marcescens, we produced DNA fingerprints from 57 isolates of the organism using the restriction enzyme XbaI and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The isolates were selected on the basis of their epidemiology, serotype and phage-typing patterns to include 28 unrelated strains and 29 representatives from 2 distinct outbreaks. One of the outbreaks was prolonged. lasting for several years. Electrophoretic profiles consisting of 20 or more clearly resolved bands were obtained for all isolates. Twenty-six of the unrelated strains had unique profiles with over 10 band differences from all other strains, while 27 of the outbreak representatives could be assigned to the appropriate outbreak with confidence. The majority of the outbreak isolates had none or 2 band differences from the index profile, although 3 isolates differed by 5-7 bands. The 2 exceptions among the unrelated strains differed by 4 bands, and 3 phage typing reactions, and were isolated from London and Berlin 3 years apart, while the 2 exceptions among the outbreak collection had clearly unique profiles with over 20 band differences from each other and the outbreak profiles. Cluster analysis using Dice coefficient and UPGMA gave cut-off values of 75-78% similarity overall for related isolates, while the closest similarity for unrelated strains was 70%. The results of this study together with those of the 6 previous reports of PFGE for S. marcescens (which used either enzymes XbaI or SpeI) confirm that this technique is of value for this species and that with XbaI at least, most epidemiologically related strains will only differ by 3-4 bands. However, on occasion up to 7 band differences can be found within an apparent outbreak, which may be suggestive of genetic drift.     

Application of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis to epidemiologic investigations of Xanthomonas maltophilia

OBJECTIVE: To test the utility of a newly developed multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing method for Xanthomonas maltophilia. DESIGN: Isolates were first screened by slide agglutination, which served as the standard to characterize the outbreak strains. All isolates were then subjected to multilocus enzyme electrophoresis and the results analyzed based on epidemiological data. SETTING: This outbreak occurred in a shock-trauma intensive care unit of a large general community hospital. PATIENTS: Patients admitted to the shock-trauma intensive care unit who had X maltophilia isolated from any site greater than or equal to 24 hours after admission met the case definition. Specimens from patients who fit the case definition were characterized, as were specimens from other patients that were used as controls for nonoutbreak isolates. Environmental samples were also evaluated for X maltophilia. RESULTS: Most of the 64 isolates received during this outbreak were serotype 10, and when they were subjected to multilocus enzyme electrophoresis, one electrophoretic type predominated and correlated to most outbreak isolates. Unrelated isolates of serotype 10 from other institutions all exhibited unique electrophoretic types. CONCLUSION: Application of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis to X maltophilia outbreaks is a valuable addition to the characterization of suspected outbreak strains.     

Characterization and epidemiologic subtyping of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli strains isolated from hemolytic uremic syndrome and diarrhea cases in Argentina

Argentina has a high incidence of hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS); 12.2 cases per 100,000 children younger than 5 years old were reported in 2002. Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is the primary etiologic agent of HUS, and STEC O157 is the predominant serogroup isolated. The main objective of the present work was to establish the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the STEC strains in general isolated from Argentine children during a prospective study and the clonal relatedness of STEC O157:H7 strains using subtyping techniques. One hundred and three STEC strains isolated from 99 children were included. The phenotypic and genotypic features were established, and a polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCRRFLP) was performed to determine stx2 variants. The clonal relatedness of E. coli O157 isolates was established by phage typing and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The 103 STEC strains belonged to 18 different serotypes, and 59% were of serotype O157:H7. Stx2 was identified in 90.3%, and stx1 in 9.7%. Among the 61 STEC O157 strains, 93.4% harbored the stx2/stx2vh-a genes; PT4 (39.3%) and PT2 (29.5%) were the predominant phage types. Using PFGE with the enzyme XbaI, a total of 41 patterns with at least 80% similarity were identified, and seven clusters with identical profiles were established. Some of the clusters were further split by PFGE using BlnI as the second enzyme. Isolates with indistinguishable PFGE patterns were with one exception also indistinguishable by phage typing and stx genotyping. These findings confirmed that some isolates were genetically related. However, no epidemiological linkages were identified. STEC strains with different genotypes and belonging to diverse serotypes were isolated in Argentina. Some STEC O157 strains could not be distinguished by applying subtyping techniques such as PFGE and phage typing.     

An extended multi-locus molecular typing schema for Streptococcus pneumoniae demonstrates that a limited number of capsular switch events is responsible for serotype heterogeneity of closely related strains from different countries

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Pneumococcal strains are classified according to their capsular serotype and through a Multi-Locus Sequence Typing schema (MLST) based on the sequencing of seven housekeeping genes. However, strains with a defined allelic profile (Sequence Type, ST) can have different serotypes, suggesting that the micro-evolution of the MLST lineages leads to a considerable degree of phenotypic variability. To better investigate the genetic diversity within these lineages, we set-up and then validated an extended molecular typing schema (96-MLST) based on the sequencing of ninety-six genomic loci. 96-MLST loci were designed within core-genes in a collection of 39 complete genomes of S. pneumoniae. None of the capsular genes was included in the schema. When tested on a collection of 69 isolates, 96-MLST was able to partition strains with the same ST and diverse serotypes into groups that were homogenous for capsular serotype, improving our understanding of the evolution of epidemiologically relevant lineages. Phylogenetic sequence analysis showed that the capsular heterogeneity of three STs that were sampled more extensively could be traced back to a limited number of capsular switch events, indicating that changes of serotype occur occasionally during the short term expansion of clones. Moreover, a geographical structure of ST156 was identified, suggesting that the resolution guaranteed by this method is sufficient for phylogeographic studies. In conclusion, we showed that an extended typing schema was able to characterize the expansion of individual lineages in a complex species such as S. pneumoniae.     

Population Structure and Antimicrobial Resistance of Invasive Serotype IV Group B Streptococcus,Toronto, Ontario,Canada

We recently showed that 37/600 (6.2%) invasive infections with group B Streptococcus (GBS) in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, were caused by serotype IV strains. We report a relatively high level of genetic diversity in 37 invasive strains of this emerging GBS serotype. Multilocus sequence typing identified 6 sequence types (STs) that belonged to 3 clonal complexes. Most isolates were ST-459 (19/37, 51%) and ST-452 (11/37, 30%), but we also identified ST-291, ST-3, ST-196, and a novel ST-682. We detected further diversity by performing whole-genome single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis and found evidence of recombination events contributing to variation in some serotype IV GBS strains. We also evaluated antimicrobial drug resistance and found that ST-459 strains were resistant to clindamycin and erythromycin, whereas strains of other STs were, for the most part, susceptible to these antimicrobial drugs.     

Comparison of PFGE, ribotyping and phage-typing in the epidemiological analysis of Campylobacter jejuni serotype HS2 infections.

In this study we have evaluated the ability of three typing methods, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), phage-typing and ribotyping, to discriminate not only between strains of differing serotypes but also between strains within a single serotype, heat stable serotype 2 (HS2). Forty-five isolates derived from cases of campylobacter enteritis occurring in the Cardiff area were examined. These included 18, mostly HS2, strains associated with an outbreak. The typing results for these and a further 39 epidemiologically unrelated strains of serotype HS2 were compared. This is the first report documenting the use of PFGE in an epidemiological investigation of Campylobacter jejuni in the UK. The results presented suggest that this technique is the most discriminatory of the three subtyping methods examined.     

湖南省2012年霍乱弧菌病原学特征分析

目的了解2012年湖南省不同地区不同时间各疫情菌株的病原学特征,分析比较各疫情分离株之间以及与常规监测分离株之间的遗传相关性,为追溯传染源提供依据。方法利用生化鉴定系统进行菌株鉴定,血清学方法生物分型,PCR方法检测毒力基因和脉冲场凝胶电泳技术(PFGE)进行分子分型。结果 2012年从湖南省疫情和监测样品中分离的17株O139群霍乱弧菌均带毒力基因,均为产毒株。在进行PFGE分子分型的17株菌中,有2起疫情酶切图谱完全相同,而该2起疫情与其他的3起疫情以及这3起疫情之间的酶切图谱不完全相同。结论湖南省2012年从甲鱼中分离的O139群霍乱弧菌毒力基因携带率高,是疫情频发的一个重要原因。从病人和食品中分离的菌株具有高度同源,进一步证实该疫情为食源性传播。分子分型图谱相似率100%的2起疫情传染来源一致,而其他各起疫情之间关联性很小或者没有,传染来源均不同。     

广州地区70株副溶血性弧菌病原学特征分析

目的 了解广州地区人源性和食源性副溶血性弧菌优势血清型、携带毒力基因和分子分型情况。方法 收集2014 - 2016年广州地区腹泻患者和食源性监测中分离到的副溶血性弧菌进行血清分型、毒力基因鉴定和脉冲场凝胶电泳分型（PFGE）。结果 70株副溶血性弧菌,临床分离株48株,血清型分别为O3∶K6、O4∶K8、O1∶K1、O4∶K9、O1∶K36,其中O3∶K6为主要型别（70.8%）,其次为O4∶K8（20.8%）。食品分离株22株,血清型分散无明显优势。毒力基因检测,临床分离株46株tdh、toxRS/new、orf8全部阳性。食品分离株6株tdh阳性,toxRS/new、orf8全部阴性。所有菌株均未检出trh基因。PFGE分析70株副溶血性弧菌可分为45种带型,2种聚类,菌株间的相似值为45.6 %～100 %。结论 副溶血性弧菌临床分离株与食品分离株在血清型和毒力基因分布上具有分离现象。引起广州地区食源性疾病的副溶血性弧菌株,是主要以携带tdh、toxRS/new、orf8基因的O3:K6型菌株。PFGE图谱显示,本区域70株副溶血弧菌呈现基因多样性。     

120株绿脓杆菌的质粒图谱分析

本文应用Ｋａｄｏ－Ｌｉｕ方法对１９９０至１９９１年南京地区８家医院分离的１２０株绿脓杆菌进行了质粒检测，结果发现质粒得率为２４．２％，可分为１３个闰图谱型别，闰分子量的变化范围由１．９１至４５．１４ＭＤａ。并将质粒图谱与血清型进行了比较：具有相同闰图谱的菌，春自清型可相同亦可。文中对质粒图谱是否能用于绿脓杆菌的分子流行病学监测进行了讨论。     

Clonal diversity of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O103:H2/H(-) in Germany.

Shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli O103:H2/H(-) belong to the third most frequently isolated EHEC serotypes in Germany following isolates of O157:H7/H(-) and O26:H11/H(-). A total of 145 respective E. coli 103 isolates from single cases of diarrhoea and haemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) in 1997-2000 were characterised by a range of molecular subtyping methods (PFGE, P-gene profiling, ribotyping, electrotyping) and phage typing in order to analyse their genetic relatedness and the practicability for new epidemiological tracing back. All isolates cluster into a distinct EHEC subgroup and reveal a high clonal diversity together with a considerable stability. Since strains of this serotype rank up to the third most frequently isolated EHEC in Germany a large population of this serotype, and therefore, a great supply of such strains may exist in this country.     

2011-2012年杭州市肠道沙门菌临床分离株的分子型别分析

目的研究2011-2012年杭州市肠道沙门菌临床分离株的型别,了解本地菌株分子流行病学特征。方法对66株肠道沙门菌临床分离株进行血清分型和多位点序列分型(MLST)。对其中主要血清型:鼠伤寒、甲型副伤寒、萨雷甲尼和肠炎沙门菌菌株进行脉冲场凝胶电泳(PFGE)分型。结果分布于21个血清型的66株沙门菌分成26个ST型别。发现一株纽波特沙门菌为新型ST1690。菌株血清型与MLST型别数据库中所对应的血清型符合率为100.00%。9株甲型副伤寒沙门菌的PFGE带型完全一致(P7型),与先前杭州流行菌株有差异(P1-P6型)。6株肠炎沙门菌分成4个PFGE型,型间最小相似性为92.70%。13株鼠伤寒沙门菌分为11个PFGE型,型间最小相似性为71.70%。7株萨雷甲尼沙门菌分成4个PFGE型别,型间最小相似性为91.00%。结论近年杭州腹泻病人中流行的肠道沙门菌菌株主要血清型为鼠伤寒、甲型副伤寒、萨雷甲尼和肠炎等。甲型副伤寒沙门菌菌株在杭州出现了新PFGE型别。MLST数据可以对沙门菌血清学鉴定提供一定的帮助。     

脉冲场凝胶电泳在一起慕尼黑沙门菌食源性暴发中的应用研究

目的 脉冲场凝胶电泳(PFGE)在食源性疾病病原菌诊断中的应用.方法 采集19例患者和18名厨师的肛拭子、9份自制冷饮、2份井水以及5例患者的急性期和恢复期血清.同时采集未发病学生大便10份,血清5份,作为正常人对照.用传统的方法进行致病菌的分离和表型鉴定,对所分离的菌株参照美国疾病预防控制中心(CDC)的实验方法用PFGE进行DNA分子分型,使用BioNumerics软件进行聚类分析.方法 从19份食物中毒患者肛拭子中分离出14株慕尼黑沙门菌、从9份可疑食物中分离出3株慕尼黑沙门菌、从18名厨师肛拭子中分离出7株慕尼黑沙门菌,所分离菌株生化结果一致、耐药性相同,患者恢复期血清比急性期血清对所分离的菌株抗体有4倍以上增长.23株分离株的PFGE型完全一致.结论PFGE能直观判断肠道致病菌的亲缘关系,及时确定传染源、传播途径和流行范围,是有效控制食源性疾病大面积暴发的早期预警手段.     

The assessment and application of a bacteriocin typing scheme for Clostridium perfringens

A collection of 50 bacteriocins was assembled and used to type 802 isolates of Clostridium perfringens from food poisoning outbreaks and a variety of other sources. It was found that strains of the same serotype within an outbreak showed similar patterns of susceptibility to bacteriocins, and the use of "one difference' rule is proposed for interpretation of the typing patterns of epidemiologically related strains. Isolates of different serotype or of the same serotype isolated from different sources produced many variations in bacteriocin susceptibility patterns. Two computer programs were developed to assist in the interpretation of bacteriocin typing patterns. Their use showed that related and unrelated strains formed different clusters and enabled a range of the 20 most discriminatory bacteriocins to be selected. Isolates of C. perfringens from a wide range of sources were screened for their ability to produce bacteriocins. A much greater proportion of the strains from food poisoning outbreaks was bacteriocinogenic than were isolates from human and animal infections, various foods and the environment. The relevance of these findings to the occurrence of C. perfringens food poisoning is discussed.     

沈阳地区副溶血弧菌脉冲场凝胶电泳分析

目的运用脉冲场凝胶电泳技术(pulsed-field gel electrophoresis,PFGE)和PCR技术对辽宁沈阳市2010年7—8月份临床粪便标本分离的副溶血性弧菌进行毒力基因检测和分子分型分析。方法运用PCR技术检测24株副溶血弧菌的耐热溶血素基因(tdh)、耐热溶血素相关溶血素基因(trh)和不耐热溶血素基因(tl);用PFGE技术对其进行分子分型和聚类分析。结果 24株副溶血弧菌均含有tdh和tl基因,表明均为有毒株;PFGE结果显示,24株菌株可分为10种图谱型,其中17株O3:K6被分为4种型别(仅相差1～3条带),表明17株O3:K6在流行病学上密切相关,提示沈阳地区可能存在副溶血弧菌腹泻病的局部暴发或流行。结论沈阳地区流行的食源性副溶血弧菌存在基因型的多样性,但以遗传关系密切的O3:K6型为优势型别。