Splenectomy as a therapeutic approach in refractory hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis

Zhang et al. have reported a case of an adult man with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) with an unknown etiology who has achieved a remission of HLH following comprehensive treatment based on splenectomy. In the present communication, the author critically discusses diagnostic and therapeutic issues related to the reported case, and questions utility of splenectomy in the treatment of active HLH.     

Malaria-associated secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: A case report

BACKGROUNDMalaria-associated secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is rare. Moreover, the literature on malaria-associated HLH is sparse, and there are no similar cases reported in China.CASE SUMMARYWe report the case of a 29-year-old woman with unexplained intermittent fever who was admitted to our hospital due to an unclear diagnosis. The patient concealed her history of travel to Nigeria before onset. We made a diagnosis of malaria-associated secondary HLH. The treatment strategy for this patient included treatment of the inciting factor (artemether for 9 d followed by artemisinin for 5 d), the use of immunosuppressants (steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin) and supportive care. The patient was discharged in normal physical condition after 25 d of intensive care. No relapses were documented on follow-up at six months and 1 year. CONCLUSIONEarly diagnosis of the primary disease along with timely intervention and a multidisciplinary approach can help patients achieve a satisfactory outcome.     

妊娠相关噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增生症临床诊疗分析

目的：观察妊娠相关噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增生症（HLH）的临床特点,探索有效的治疗手段。方法对妊娠相关 HLH 患者的临床表现、实验室检查及疗效、预后进行综合分析。结果8例妊娠相关 HLH 患者均为初次妊娠,2例患者发生于妊娠早期,6例患者发生于围产期;发热（100％）、脾大（75.0％）、消化系统症状（62.5％）是妊娠相关HLH 的主要临床表现;所有患者均有 sCD25的显著升高和 NK 细胞活性的下降,肝功能损害、高甘油三酯血症在妊娠相关 HLH 患者中的发生率更为突出;8例患者有2例患者病情进展迅速,于1月内死亡,6例获得长期生存并仍在随访中。结论妊娠期及产褥期存在异常的免疫调节可能是继发 HLH 的高危因素。及时正确的诊断和恰当的治疗有望改善预后。     

儿童噬血细胞综合征临床特征分析

目的探讨儿童噬血细胞综合征（HLH）的临床表现特征,影响HLH预后的危险因素及合理用药。方法回顾性分析23例HLH患儿的住院病历资料,并应用SPSS13．0统计软件进行统计分析。结果将患儿按预后分为好转组与恶化组进行比较,发现两组患儿在地塞米松的使用上差异性显著（P〈0．05）;将单因素分析筛选出的可能有意义的变量再进行Logistic回归分析,显示在本次研究中地塞米松是影响HLH预后的显著相关因子。对17例证实有EB病毒（EBV）感染的患儿进行分析,发现B淋巴细胞计数（CD19）及使用地塞米松对EBV—HLH预后的影响具有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论儿童HLH的治疗过程中应注意继发感染及弥散性血管内凝血的出现,在严格按照HLH-04标准进行治疗的同时,是否存在仪用激素及对症治疗就可控制的“轻症”HLH有待进一步研究。     

Human parechovirus-3 infection in nine neonates and infants presenting symptoms of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis

Human parechovirus-3 (HPeV-3) has been reported to cause a sepsis-like illness in neonates and young infants. We experienced the occurrence of HPeV-3 infection in nine neonates and young infants (eight boys, one girl; aged 14–52 days, median 31 days). They were admitted to our hospital with the chief complaints of fever persisting for 3–5 days (median 4 days) and lethargy. Five infants presented with abdominal distension and six had a rash (including acral reddening), as was previously reported with this viral infection. Abdominal distension with navel protrusion and acral reddening during the course were characteristic. Laboratory data were characterized by elevated values for serum AST, LDH, FDP, D-dimer, ferritin, soluble IL-2 receptor, triglyceride, choline esterase, and urinary β₂-microglobulin. Two of our nine patients presented with a hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH)-like illness and required specific therapy. These data suggest that HPeV-3 is an important virus that can cause hypercytokinemia, which sometimes leads to HLH, and systemic inflammatory response syndrome in neonates and young infants.     

Unusual presentation of systemic lupus erythematosus as hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a female patient: A case report

BACKGROUNDHemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rare life-threatening disorder, often resulting in the immune-mediated injury of multiple organ systems, including primary HLH and secondary HLH (sHLH). Among them, sHLH results from infections, malignant, or autoimmune conditions, which have quite poor outcomes even with aggressive management and are more common in adults.CASE SUMMARYWe report a rare case of a 36-year-old female manifested with sHLH on background with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). During hospitalization, the patient was characterized by recurrent high-grade fever, petechiae and ecchymoses of abdominal skin, and pulmonary infection. Whole exon gene sequencing revealed decreased activity of natural killer cells. She received systematic treatment with Methylprednisolone, Etoposide, and anti-infective drugs. Intravenous immunoglobulin and plasmapheresis were applied when the condition was extremely acute and progressive. The patient recovered and did not present any relapse of the HLH for one year of follow-up.CONCLUSIONThe case showed sHLH, thrombotic microvascular, and infection in the whole course of the disease, which was rarely reported by now. The treatment of the patient emphasizes that early recognition and treatment of sHLH in SLE patients was of utmost importance to improve the prognosis and survival rate of patients.     

成人噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增多症一例并文献复习

目的探讨噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增多症(HLH)的临床特点、发病机制、治疗方案及预后。方法回顾分析1例成人HLH患者的临床资料并进行文献复习。结果患者经积极规范治疗,病情明显好转。结论 HLH病情凶险,进展迅速,早期积极治疗可以治愈。     

Tuberculosis-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis misdiagnosed as systemic lupus erythematosus: A case report

BACKGROUNDHemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rare disorder with rapid progression and high mortality. HLH occurs mostly due to infection, malignant tumors, and immune disorders. Among infections that cause HLH, viral infections, especially Epstein-Barr virus infections, are common, whereas tuberculosis is rare. Tuberculosis-associated HLH has a wide range of serological and clinical manifestations that are similar to those of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).CASE SUMMARYThis study describes a case of tuberculosis-associated HLH misdiagnosed as SLE because of antinuclear antibody (ANA), Smith (Sm) antibody and lupus anticoagulant positivity; leukopenia; thrombocytopenia; pleural effusion; decreased C3, quantitatively increased 24 h urinary protein and fever. The patient was initially treated with glucocorticoids, which resulted in peripheral blood cytopenia and symptom recurrence. Then, caseating granulomas and hemophagocytosis were observed in her bone marrow. She was successfully treated with conventional category 1 antituberculous drugs. In addition, we reviewed the literature on tuberculosis-associated HLH documented in PubMed, including all full-text articles published in English from December 2009 to December 2019, and summarized the key points, including the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of tuberculosis-associated HLH and the differences of the present case from previous reports.CONCLUSIONTuberculosis should be considered in patients with fever or respiratory symptoms. Antituberculous drugs are important for treating tuberculosis-associated HLH.     

GATA2 mutation underlies hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in an adult with primary cytomegalovirus infection

We report a case of a 27-year old woman with persistent fever and pancytopenia who had multiple episodes of a hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) like condition. The criterion for HLH was satisfied; primary cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection was identified as the cause. Further examination revealed a GATA binding protein 2 mutation. Reports of GATAs deficiency presenting with HLH after primary CMV infection is very limited. As early recognition and diagnosis will improve patients' outcomes, internists and infectious disease specialists should be aware of this disease.     

Disseminated histoplasmosis associated with acquired hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a potentially life‐threatening clinical syndrome caused by uncontrolled activation of lymphocytes and histiocytes resulting in high levels of cytokines. Acquired HLH occurs in autoimmune, inflammatory, infectious, and immunosuppressive disorders. Prompt identification and treatment of an underlying triggering cause improves clinical outcome.     

EBV驱动相关噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增多症

噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增多症(hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, HLH)是由于机体免疫功能失控,形成HLH致命的炎症因子风暴表现。随着分子遗传学研究的发展,目前,对于HLH的认识逐渐深入。其中,一些基因突变在引起HLH过程中,EBV感染为其重要诱因,这类疾病被称为EB病毒驱动型噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增多症。目前已知基因包括IL-2诱导的T细胞激酶缺乏(ITK)缺陷、镁离子转运体1(MAGT1)缺陷、CD27缺陷、CD70缺陷、CTPS1缺陷以及RASGRP1缺陷。本文将对EB病毒驱动型噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增多症的流行病学、病理生理机制、临床表现、治疗进行综述。     

PD-1 blockader-associated atypical hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: A cautionary case report

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a fatal immune hyperactivity syndrome with high mortality. It seriously endangers human health. HLH associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors is rare, and no particular diagnostic guidelines or treatment regimens exist. A 36-year-old patient with metastatic right atrial angiosarcoma was treated with programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) blockader toripalimab and pazopanib, a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor blockader. However, the patient presented to our center with HLH, and he accepted combination therapy of therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) and immunotherapy. The patient improved quickly, after only one TPE procedure. Finally, he was discharged after completing two TPE procedures. We summarize a case of PD-1 blocker associated atypical HLH that was successfully treated with TPE. Further evidence is needed to elucidate whether TPE has therapeutic potential for immunotherapy associated HLH.     

Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma induced hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and disseminated intravascular coagulopathy: A case report

BACKGROUND Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma(AITL) is a subtype of peripheral T-cell lymphoma, with heterogenous clinical manifestations and poor prognosis. Here,we report a case of AITL induced hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis(HLH)and disseminated intravascular coagulopathy(DIC).CASE SUMMARY An 83-year-old man presented with fever and purpura of both lower limbs for one month. Groin lymph node puncture and flow cytometry indicated a diagnosis of AITL. Bone marrow examination and other labora...     

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis secondary to composite lymphoma: Two case reports

BACKGROUNDHemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rare and life-threatening disease caused by inherited pathogenic mutations and acquired dysregulations of the immune system. Composite lymphoma is defined as two or more morphologically and immunophenotypically distinct lymphomas that occur in a single patient. Here, we report two cases of HLH secondary to composite lymphoma with mixed lineage features of T- and B-cell marker expression both in the bone marrow and lymph nodes in adult patients.CASE SUMMARYTwo patients were diagnosed with HLH based on the occurrence of fever, pancytopenia, lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, hemophagocytosis and hyperferritinemia. Immunohistochemical staining of the axillary lymph node and bone marrow in case 1 showed typical features of combined B-cell and T-cell lymphoma. In addition, a lymph node gene study revealed rearrangement of the T-cell receptor chain and the immunoglobulin gene. Morphology and immunohistochemistry studies of a lymph node biopsy in case 2 showed typical features of T cell lymphoma, but immunophenotyping by flow cytometry analysis of bone marrow aspirate showed B cell lymphoma involvement. The patients were treated with high-dose methylprednisolone combined with etoposide to control aggressive HLH progression. The patients also received immunochemotherapy with the R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) regimen immediately after diagnosis. Both patients presented with highly aggressive lymphoma, and died of severe infection or uncontrolled HLH.CONCLUSIONWe present two rare cases with overwhelming hemophagocytosis along with composite T- and B-cell lymphoma, which posed a diagnostic dilemma. HLH caused by composite lymphoma was characterized by poor clinical outcomes.     

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis associated with HBV‐HCV coinfection in adult: Case report

The case reported is the first case in Morocco to our knowledge. The reason for sharing this case is to facilitate knowledge transfer between physicians, caring for adult patients with HLH, with the aim to improve the outcome of these patients.     

Miliary tuberculosis-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with a high level of soluble interleukin-2 receptor successfully treated with concomitant recombinant thrombomodulin: A case report

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a fatal disease characterized by a highly inflammatory state due to the abnormal activation of T lymphocytes and macrophages. Miliary tuberculosis (MTB) is a rare cause of HLH and its clinical appearances occasionally resembles that of intravascular lymphoma (IVL). A 76-year-old woman presented with persistent fever and fatigue. Abnormal laboratory findings showing thrombocytopenia (13,000/μL), hypofibrinogenemia (101 mg/dL), hyperferritinemia (2,312 ng/mL), and markedly elevated soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R) level (32,200 U/mL), in addition, hemophagocytosis in the bone marrow (BM) smear, were suggestive of IVL-associated HLH. The pathology of the BM biopsy specimen showed granuloma with non-caseous necrosis, and culture tests using sputum, gastric fluid, urine, and peripheral and bone marrow blood revealed the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leading to the final diagnosis of MTB-associated HLH. Anti-TB medications and corticosteroids were administered, but thrombocytopenia, hypofibrinogenemia, and hyperferritinemia persisted. Concomitant use of recombinant thrombomodulin (rTM) enabled regression of clinical status. In this case, BM biopsy served as the diagnosis of MTB-associated HLH, although IVL-associated HLH is initially suspected by an extremely high level of sIL-2R. Furthermore, this case report informs that using rTM could improve the outcomes of MTB-associated HLH.     

Aggressive natural killer cell leukemia with skin manifestation associated with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: A case report

BACKGROUNDAggressive natural killer cell leukemia (ANKL) is a rare natural killer cell neoplasm characterized by systemic infiltration of Epstein–Barr virus and rapidly progressive clinical course. ANKL can be accompanied with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). Here, we report a case of ANKL with rare skin lesions as an earlier manifestation, accompanied with HLH, and review the literature in terms of etiology, clinical manifestation, diagnosis and treatment.CASE SUMMARYA 30-year-old woman from Northwest China presented with the clinical characteristics of jaundice, fever, erythema, splenomegaly, progressive hemocytopenia, liver failure, quantities of abnormal cells in bone marrow, and associated HLH. The immunophenotypes of abnormal cells were positive for CD2, cCD3, CD7, CD56, CD38 and negative for sCD3, CD8 and CD117. The diagnosis of ANKL complicated with HLH was confirmed. Following the initial diagnosis and supplementary treatment, the patient received chemotherapy with VDLP regimen (vincristine, daunorubicin, L-asparaginase and prednisone). However, the patient had severe adverse reactions and complication such as severe hematochezia, neutropenia, and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, and died a few days later. CONCLUSIONThis is the first reported case of ANKL with rare skin lesions as an earlier manifestation and associated with HLH.     

EB病毒相关噬血细胞综合征研究进展

噬血细胞综合征（HPS）又称噬血细胞性淋巴组织细胞增多症（HLH）,病毒相关噬血细胞综合征（VAHS）,其中以EB病毒相关噬血细胞综合征（EBV-HLH）在临床上最为常见。EBV-HLH临床表现多种多样,其诊断需符合HLH诊断标准、存在EBV感染证据及除外原发性HLH及淋巴瘤相关噬血细胞综合征等原发病。治疗首选地塞米松、依托泊苷（VP-16）和环孢菌素A联合化疗,若化疗效果欠佳,可行造血干细胞移植。本文总结了近年来EBV-HLH发病机制、临床表现、诊断及治疗和预后等方面的研究进展。