Vitamin K status of lactating mothers and their infants

Vitamin K deficiency remains a world-wide problem in the newborn. Vitamin K traverses the placenta from mother to infant very poorly and is present only in very low concentrations in human milk. Thus, it is not surprising that the newborn infant has undetectable vitamin K serum levels with abnormal amounts of the coagulation proteins and undercarboxylated prothrombin. Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn, secondary to vitamin K deficiency, remains largely a disease of breastfed infants. Lactating mothers easily achieve the recommended dietary allowance for vitamin K (1 μg kg⁻¹ d⁻¹) and the breast milk concentration is readily increased by increasing maternal vitamin K intake. Breastfed infants do not receive the recommended vitamin K intake via human milk. To prevent vitamin K deficiency in the newborn, intramuscular or oral vitamin K prophylaxis is necessary.     

Vitamin K status of lactating mothers, human milk, and breast-feeding infants

Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn is a disease of breast-feeding newborns. There is little information on longitudinal breast milk concentrations of phylloquinone (vitamin K1) or the effects of maternal phylloquinone supplements on breast milk. In study part 1, 11 lactating mothers, who received 20 mg of phylloquinone orally, had rises in plasma (less than 1 to 64.2 +/- 31.5 ng/mL by 6 hours) and breast milk concentrations (from 1.11 +/- 0.82 to 130 +/- 188 ng/mL by 12 hours). In part 2, 23 lactating mothers and their infants were observed longitudinally along with a formula-fed control group of infants (n = 11). Mean breast milk concentrations of phylloquinone at 1, 6, 12, and 26 weeks were 0.64 +/- 0.43, 0.86 +/- 0.52, 1.14 +/- 0.72, and 0.87 +/- 0.50 ng/mL, respectively, in the infants fed human milk. Maternal phylloquinone intakes (72-hour dietary recalls) exceeded the recommended daily allowance of 1 microgram/kg per day. Infant phylloquinone intakes did not achieve the recommended daily allowance of 1 microgram/kg per day in any infant. Plasma phylloquinone concentrations in the infants fed human milk remained extremely low (mean less than 0.25 ng/mL) throughout the first 6 months of life compared with the formula-fed infants (4.39 to 5.99 ng/mL). In this small sample, no infant demonstrated overt vitamin K deficiency. Despite very low plasma phylloquinone concentrations, vitamin K supplements (other than in the immediate newborn period) cannot be recommended for exclusively breast-fed infants based on these data.     

Vitamin D status of mothers and their neonates in Kuwait

BACKGROUND: There has been a resurgence of nutritional rickets in children in many developing countries and some of the developed countries. Children between 6 and 18 months old are commonly affected. In order to find out the association between vitamin D and rickets we studied the vitamin D status of the neonates and their mothers in Kuwait. METHODS: Two hundred and fourteen full-term pregnant mothers and their neonates were selected from two hospitals in Kuwait. All mothers had normal vaginal delivery. On the day of delivery 2.5 mL of maternal blood and 2.5 mL of cord blood samples were withdrawn. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) was determined in duplicate by radioimmunoassay using an Incstar kit. Quality control analyses were done using several between and within run experiments. RESULTS: A total of 128 mother-neonate pairs were selected from the Al-Adan hospital and 86 from the Maternity Hospital. The mean age and parity of the mothers were similar in both hospitals. The mean (+/- SD) 25OHD levels of the mothers and the neonates in the Adan hospital were 13.3 (6.5) ng/mL and 8.2 (6.5) ng/mL, respectively. The corresponding values in the Maternity Hospital were 17.6 (12.4) and 8.1 (7.3) ng/mL for the mothers and the neonate, respectively. Serum 25OHD of the mothers and their newborn infants were highly correlated (r = 0.790, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrate that 40% of the mothers and 60% of the neonates are vitamin D deficient on the day of delivery. The vitamin D of the mothers and neonates are highly correlated (r = 0.790, P < 0.001).     

The composition of polyunsaturated fatty acids in erythrocytes of lactating mothers and their infants

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) in breastmilk, specifically docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are important for infant brain development. Accretion of DHA in the infant brain is dependent on DHA-status, intake and metabolism. The aim of this study was to describe changes in maternal and infant erythrocyte (RBC) DHA-status during the first four months of lactation. We examined 17 mothers and their term infants at 1, 2 and 4 months of age. Milk samples and RBC from the mothers and infants were obtained and analysed for fatty acid composition. Comparative analysis of the results showed that the content of DHA in maternal RBC-phosphatidylcholine (PE) decreased over the four month period and this was not accompanied by a decrease in DHA in infant RBC-PE (P = 0.005). The ratio of n-6 PUFA to n-3 PUFA increased over time in maternal RBC-PE, but not in infant RBC-PE (P < 0.001). The level of 22:5n-6 and the ratio of LCPUFA to precursor PUFAs in infant RBC was higher than in maternal RBC phospholipids. (P = and P < 0.001 respectively). We found a decrease in the level of LCPUFA in milk, specifically AA. However, we did not observe a significant decrease in milk DHA, which may have been due to two outliers. These results indicate better DHA-status and a higher n-3/n-6 PUFA in RBC of infants than in mothers. Whether these differences reflect preferential n-3 PUFA transfer via breastmilk or differences in PUFA-metabolism and utilization remains to be shown.     

The vitamin status of low birth weight infants and their mothers

The levels of vitamins A, E, B1, B2, folate, and B12 were measured in maternal blood, cord blood, and in 5-day neonate capillary blood samples. Twenty-six infants and their mothers served as controls and were compared with 32 low birth weight (LBW) infants. LBW infants showed significantly lower levels of vitamins A, E, B2, and folate than the controls. The folate status of mothers of LBW infants was significantly lower (7 +/- 1.8 ng/ml) than that of control mothers (21 +/- 0.8 ng/ml).     

Vitamin D Status of term exclusively breastfed infants and their mothers from India

Objectives: (i) To measure 25‐OH vitamin D levels in term infants at 10 weeks and 6 months and to correlate with maternal vitamin D levels at 10‐week postpartum (ii) To evaluate infants at 6 months for rickets. Patients and methods: A total of 179 exclusively breastfed infant–mother pairs 96 appropriate‐for‐gestational age (Group 1) and 83 small‐ for‐ gestational age infants (Group 2) recruited at 10 weeks. At 6 months, 52 in group 1 and 45 in group 2 were evaluated. Venous blood sample were collected at 10 weeks and 6 months in infants and at 10 weeks in mothers for calcium, phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase and 25‐OH vitamin D estimation. Results: Mean 25‐OH vitamin D levels of infants (n = 97) were 11.55 ± 7.17 ng/mL at 10 weeks and 16.96 ± 13.33 ng/mL at 6 months (p < 0.001). Mean vitamin D levels of infants in group 1 and group 2 did not differ at recruitment and 6 months (p > 0.05)). Maternal vitamin D levels in group 1 and group 2 were 8.89 ± 5.97 and 9.87 ± 6.44 ng/mL, respectively (p = 0.44). Significant correlation was observed between 25‐OH vitamin D of infants and mothers (p < 0.05). At 10 weeks, 55.67% infants, 70% mothers and at 6 months, 44.33% infants had vitamin D < 11 ng/mL. At 6 months, 16.49% infants developed rickets. Conclusions: Exclusively breastfed infants and their mothers are Vitamin D deficient, hence the need to improve vitamin D status.     

Vitamin K status of preterm infants with a prolonged prothrombin time

AIM: To investigate the vitamin K status of preterm infants who have a prolonged prothrombin time (PT) in the first month of life. METHODS: Measures of vitamin K status were assessed in 21 preterm infants who were found to have an abnormal PT, despite 0.2-0.5 mg vitamin K(1) prophylaxis at birth. RESULTS: All infants had normal or supraphysiological vitamin K(1) concentrations and undetectable or, in one infant, insignificant PIVKA-II, indicating adequate vitamin K status. CONCLUSION: In preterm infants born at <32 wk gestation who received > or = 0.2 mg vitamin K(1) after delivery, a prolonged PT in the first month of life is unlikely to be due to vitamin K deficiency.     

Adiponectin in breast milk: relation to serum adiponectin concentration in lactating mothers and their infants

Aims: The aims of the study were to determine human breast milk adiponectin concentration and to investigate its relationship with serum adiponectin concentration in lactating mothers and their infants and also to evaluate the relationship between serum adiponectin concentration and anthropometric parameters in nurses and infants. Methods: We enrolled 60 healthy term breastfed (BF) infants and their lactating mothers. Adiponectin was determined by radioimmunoassay test in serum and by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay test in human milk (HM). Infants’ and mothers’ anthropometric parameters were measured. Results: Median (25‰, 75‰) adiponectin concentration in HM was 9.99 (3.59, 20.52) ng/mL. Serum adiponectin concentration in infants was 60.49 (45.76, 74.24) μg/mL and in lactating mothers 21.14 (12.61, 29.66) μg/mL. Adiponectin concentration in HM correlated positively with adiponectin in mothers’ serum; r = 0.60 (p < 0.001) and in infants’ serum r = 0.37 (p = 0.015). Adiponectin in HM correlated negatively with infants’ age r = ?0.3 (p = 0.04). Infants’ serum adiponectin correlated negatively with their weight r = ?0.35 (p = 0.005), length r = ?0.35 (p = 0.006) and age r = ?0.46 (p < 0.001) and mothers’ serum adiponectin with their weight r = ?0.37 (p = 0.02) and body mass index r = ?0.45 (p = 0.004). Conclusions: The observed correlations between adiponectin in mothers, HM and BF infants may be suggestive for a metabolic link between nurses and infants through milk.     

Relationship between the nutritional status of breastfeeding Mayan mothers and their infants in Guatemala

A case–control study was conducted to determine the association between maternal height and infant length‐for‐age, and to evaluate how this association is modified by either maternal or infant nutritional status. We hypothesised that maternal excess caloric intake [measured as body mass index (BMI)] would increase the association, while infant nutrition (measured in main meals consumed in addition to breastfeeding) will diminish the effect. Mother and infant pairs in Chimaltenango, Guatemala, were measured for anthropometric values and nutritional status, and mothers were interviewed to elicit nutritional and socio‐economic information. Infant length was converted into z‐scores based on the World Health Organization's (WHO) standards. Odds ratios (ORs), associated 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and the relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI) were calculated. Cases were infants below 2 z‐scores of the WHO's length‐for‐age, while controls were infants within the ?2 to 2 z‐score range. Cases (n = 84) had an increased odds (OR: 3.00, 95% CI: 1.57–5.74) of being born to a stunted mother (below 145 cm) when compared with controls (n = 85). When adjusted for potential confounders, the OR decreased to 2.55 (95% CI: 1.30–5.02). Negative RERI values were produced for the joint exposure of maternal BMI ≥ 25 and maternal stuntedness (RERI: ?0.96), as well as for the joint exposure of maternal stuntedness and infant nutrition (RERI: ?2.27). Our results confirm that maternal stuntedness is a significant contributor to infant stuntedness; however, this association is modified negligibly by maternal nutritional status and significantly by infant nutritional status, each in a protective manner.     

婴儿维生素K缺乏及其干预的研究

目的：了解中国婴儿VKD情况，评价婴儿及乳母口服维生素K干预效果。方法采集7省活产婴儿脐血547份，用ELISA法测定PIVKA－Ⅱ浓度。对7省活产婴儿19751人群随机抽样分为婴儿干预组（VitK12mg10次，口服）和对照组（不使用VitK1），哺乳母亲21368人，整群随机抽样为母亲干预组（VitK110mg10次，口服）和对照组（不使用VitK1）。所有观察对象检测婴儿至满6个月。观察期间干预组及对照组的全部出血病例，VKDB，及其死亡和残疾病例全部以专门表格登记。结果：（1）城市足月婴儿脐带血protein induced by Vitamin K absence(PIVKA-Ⅱ）阳性率32．8％（85／259），农村65．8％（96／146），城乡足月婴儿脐带血PIVKA－Ⅱ阳性率差异有显著意义（χ^2=41.0,P＜0．001）。（2）婴儿VitK1干预组10418例，4例发生出血，其中2例为Vitamin K deficiency bleeding(VKDB)，无死亡，无残疾，无1例晚发性VKDB病例。对照组9333人，52例发生出血，其中30例VKDB（21例晚发性VKDB），15例死亡，3例残疾，其中9例死亡，3例残疾由于VKD。（3)乳母VitK1干预组10518例，8例发生出血，2例死亡，无残疾及晚发性VKD病例，2例死亡者排除VKD。对照组10850例，50例婴儿发生出血，其中VKDB（晚发性9例）。14例死亡，5例残疾，其中4例死亡，3例残疾由于VKD引起。（4）小样本采集血测定PIVKA－Ⅱ及VitK1浓度。婴儿干预组脐血、1个月及2个月血浆PIVKA－Ⅱ阳性率分别为70．0％、0．0％、0．0％，对照组为76．2％、28．6％、14．3％。乳母干预组 脐血、1个月婴儿血浆PIVKA－Ⅱ阳性率分别为50．0％、15．0％，对照组66．7％、33．3％。乳母干预组脐血、1个月婴儿血浆PIVKA－Ⅱ阳性率分别为50．0％、15．0％，对照组66．7％、33．3％。乳母干预组初乳、1个月及2个月乳汁VitK1平均浓度分别为0．65μg/ml、0.63μg/ml、0.45μg/ml，对照组0．28μg/ml、0.18μg/ml、0.15μg/ml。干预组与对照组乳汁VitK1浓度差异有显著意义。结论：（1）中国婴儿脐血PIVKA－Ⅱ检测表明存在约40％的亚临床VitK缺乏；（2）婴儿及乳母口服VitK干预取得了显著效果。     

Vitamin D status does not influence the breast-milk calcium concentration of lactating mothers accustomed to a low calcium intake

Plasma 25-hydroxy-vitamin D and breast-milk calcium concentration were measured at 3 months of lactation in 60 Gambian mothers accustomed to a low calcium diet, of whom 30 were consuming a calcium supplement and 30 were receiving a placebo, and in 48 British mothers. The plasma 25-hydroxy-vitamin D concentration of the Gambian women was not affected by either calcium supplementation (supplemented, 64. 4 ± 2. 5 nmol 1^-1; placebo, 64. 9 ± 3. 5 nmol l^-1; mean ± SE) or season. The British average was lower (53. 9 ± 3. 0 nmol 1^-1, p = 0. 004), owing to marked seasonal effects. The breast-milk calcium concentration was lower in The Gambia (supplemented, 5. 38 ± 0. 13 mmol 1^-1; placebo, 5. 10 ± 0. 13mmol 1^-1; British, 6. 93 ± 0. 15 mmol 1^-1, p < 0. 0001). There was no relationship between plasma 25-hydroxy-vitamin D and breast-milk calcium concentration in any group. There was no trend towards lower breast-milk calcium concentration in women with vitamin D status towards the bottom of the normal range or in British women during the winter. This study provides no support for the hypothesis that breast-milk calcium concentration is influenced by vitamin D status or that lactating women with a low calcium intake are at particular risk of vitamin D deficiency.