Salter-Harris Type-IV injuries of the distal tibial epiphyseal growth plate, with emphasis on those involving the medial malleolus

Salter-Harris Type-IV fractures of the epiphysis extend through the articular cartilage, epiphysis, physis, and metaphysis and have a high rate of complications secondary to premature partial closure of the physis. In this study we attempted to determine which Type-IV fractures of the distal end of the tibia result in premature partial closure, how the various treatment modalities affect the risk of premature physeal closure, and how the complication itself might be best managed. Thirty-two Type-IV fractures of the distal end of the tibia were seen at the Mayo Clinic during a five-year period. Eighteen injuries involved the medial malleolus, thirteen were so-called triplane fractures, and one was a fracture of the lateral part of the plafond. In the eighteen ankles with a fracture that involved the medial malleolus, extension of the fracture into the metaphysis could often be appreciated only on oblique roentgenograms. The patients' ages at the time of fracture ranged from one year and one month to fifteen years and six months old. In nine of the eighteen tibiae with a fracture of the medial malleolus premature partial closure of the distal physis developed, resulting in angular deformity or limb-length discrepancy sufficient to require operative treatment (epiphyseodesis, corrective osteotomy, or excision of a physeal bar). A physeal bar was best detected by tomograms made in two planes and by scanograms. Bar formation may be treated by excision of the bar, arrest of the whole physis, osteotomy, or combinations of these procedures. Of the thirteen patients with a triplane fracture and the one with a Type-IV fracture of the lateral part of the plafond, all fourteen were near maturity at the time of injury, and no growth-arrest problems developed.     

Die reife Two- und Triplane-Fraktur

Physiologic closure of the growth plate of the distal tibia occurs between the ages of 12 and 14 years in girls and 1 year later in boys. The closure of the tibial physis starts eccentrically at the ventrolateral zone of the medial malleolus extending dorsally and ends laterally. Therefore, the anterolateral zone is the last to ossify. The process of closure lasts about 18 months. During this period the growth plate loses its joint-protective function and transitional fractures may occur. The more the closure progresses the more lateral the location of the fracture. In addition to the typical transitional fractures, typical fracture patterns of adults in the ossified physis are possible due to a mature bone structure. We report two cases of transitional fractures combined with typical fracture patterns of adults due to a dorsomedial ossified physis in the distal tibia.     

Accessory ossification patterns and injuries of the malleoli

An accessory, distal focus of epiphyseal ossification may develop in either malleolus. These foci are not anatomically separate entities, even though they appear to be radiographically. They usually are asymptomatic. However, they may be injured, either acutely or chronically. The diagnosis of such injury by conventional radiography is limited. Bone scintigraphy may be positive if there is a stress fracture. The fracture pattern, a type 7 growth mechanism injury, extends through a segment of the malleolus. An ossicle may also be avulsed as a ligament failure analogue, similar to a sleeve fracture of the patella. This is more common in the lateral than in the medial malleolus. These avulsions, if not adequately diagnosed and treated, may progress to delayed union, nonunion, or a chronically painful ankle.     

胫骨下1/3螺旋形骨折合并隐匿性后踝骨折的治疗分析

目的探讨胫骨下1/3螺旋形骨折合并隐匿性后踝骨折的发生原因、受伤机制和治疗方案。方法于2005年2月至2011年6月收治胫骨下1/3螺旋形骨折22例,其中有显性后踝骨折6例。采用胫骨髓内钉固定8例,胫骨下端前侧钢板1例,胫骨前外侧钢板13例;2例腓骨中段骨折采用重建钢板固定,其余腓骨均未固定。结果术中有4例患者在应用前外侧钢板固定最远端时发现隐匿性后踝骨折并移位,1例采用胫骨髓内钉的患者术后1个月复查X线片发现隐匿性后踝骨折伴移位。结论术前没有CT、MRI检查能够确诊后踝骨折类型和大小时,胫骨下端前外侧钢板可作为首选的内固定。     

Hawkins Group I fracture of neck of talus and Salter Harris Type III tibial epiphyseal injury of medial malleolus

We are reporting an unusual combination of Hawkins Group I fracture of the neck of left talus in association with Salter Harris Type III distal tibial epiphyseal injury of medial malleolus in a child with cerebral palsy and hemiplegia of contralateral limbs and discussed the possible mechanism as well as management. Fractures of medial malleolus usually occur in Hawkins Group III fracture-dislocations in adults. Forced dorsiflexion of talus against the anterior edge of tibia appears to be the accepted common mechanism, despite limited experimental and clinical evidence incriminating axial compression. Fracture of medial malleolus implicates supination. We managed this unusual pattern of injury conservatively. At 15 months, the child was asymptomatic with no radiological evidence of avascular necrosis of body of talus or growth disturbance of distal tibial epiphysis.     

Analysis of fixation methods for vertical shear fractures of the medial malleolus

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate 4 different fixation methods used to treat vertical shear fractures of the medial malleolus. METHODS: Eighty polyurethane models of the distal tibia were osteotomized in a reproducible manner to create a vertical shear fracture of the medial malleolus. Twenty specimens were then randomly assigned to 1 of 4 fixation groups. Two fixation groups used a neutralization plate, whereas 2 groups were screw-only constructs. Ten of the specimens in each group were then randomly assigned to undergo either offset axial or offset transverse loading. RESULTS: The construct using a neutralization plate with 2 screws in the distal fragment exhibited greater stiffness in offset axial loading compared with the screw-only constructs placed an equivalent distance from the tibial plafond. All specimens in the group with the properly applied neutralization plate exhibited elastic deformation, whereas the majority of the specimens in all other groups showed residual displacement or catastrophic failure of the construct. CONCLUSION: Fixation of vertical shear fractures of the medial malleolus with a properly applied neutralization plate offers a significant mechanical advantage over screw-only constructs.     

Soft tissue injuries with the use of safe corridors for transfixion wire placement during external fixation of distal tibia fractures: an anatomic study.

OBJECTIVES: To determine which soft tissue structures are at risk and when joint violation can occur during small wire placement for hybrid external fixation of distal tibial fractures while adhering to published guidelines. DESIGN: Cadaver anatomic experiment. SETTING: University orthopaedic program. SUJBECTS: Five embalmed cadavers. INTERVENTION: Placement of small wire transfixion pins in the distal tibia. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Dissection and measurements. METHODS: Four orthopaedic surgeons were shown diagrams that have been widely accepted as allowing for placement of transfixion pins in the distal tibia through safe corridors. Each of the orthopaedic surgeons was then asked to place two transfixion pins into each of five cadaver legs in a position that would provide stable external fixation of the metaphysis to the diaphysis with a circular fixator (forty pins total) for a distal tibial fracture within five centimeters of the plafond. The specimens were dissected, and pins impaling neurovascular structures, tendons, or the ankle capsule were recorded. The superior capsular synovial reflections were measured from the anterior joint line and the tip of the medial malleolus. These measurements were also performed on arthrograms of two extremities before their dissection. RESULTS: Fifty-five percent of the pins placed impaled at least one tendon that crosses the ankle joint. Neurovascular structures that were impaled included the saphenous vein (+/-10.5 percent) and the superficial peroneal nerve (+/-7.5 percent). One pin violated the superior capsular synovial reflection, which was an average of thirty-two millimeters (+/-1.58 millimeters) from the tip of the medial malleolus and twenty-one millimeters (+/-1.63 millimeters) from the anteromedial joint line. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that tendons and neurovascular structures above the ankle are at risk during small transfixion pin placement, even when using safe corridors. Pins placed within two centimeters of the anterior joint line or three centimeters from the medial malleolus may be intracapsular.     

Ankle fractures in children and adolescents

Ankle fractures in children and adolescents usually involve the distal tibial and fibular epiphysis. Unless adequately treated, these fractures may be associated with many complications including limb length discrepancy and angular deformities due to growth arrest, and arthritis due to joint involvement. Fractures of the distal tibial epiphysis are classified according to the type and mechanism of injury. Salter-Harris type 1 and 2 fractures of the ankle have a good prognosis and can be treated by closed reduction. However, type 3 and 4 fractures involving the medial malleolus require surgical treatment because they usually result in compression of the physeal plate and cause angular deformities. External rotation of the foot may result in juvenile Tillaux fractures and triplane fractures of the distal tibia in the transitional period during which asymmetric physiologic closure of the distal tibial physis occurs. These are combinations of Salter-Harris type 2, 3, and 4 fractures, consisting of two or three fragments. Although they are not associated with growth arrest, they may lead to arthritis due to joint involvement. The presence of residual displacement of more than two millimeters necessitates surgical treatment.     

Changes in tibiofibular relationships due to growth disturbances after ankle fractures in children

We analyzed the longitudinal growth of the distal tibial and fibular physes and the longitudinal displacement of the distal metaphysis and epiphysis of the fibula relative to the distal metaphysis and epiphysis of the tibia during growth using a roentgenstereophotogrammetric technique in eight children: six with a traumatic growth disturbance in one or both of the distal tibial and distal fibular physes and two with a normal ankle. In the normal ankles the distal fibular metaphysis moved distally in relation to the distal tibial metaphysis and the growth in the distal fibular physis was slower than that in the distal tibial physis. Growth arrest in the distal fibular physis and continued growth in the distal tibial physis resulted in distal displacement of the fibular metaphysis relative to the tibial metaphysis, probably due to traction on the distal ligaments of the fibula or more rapid growth in the proximal fibular physis than in the proximal tibial physis, or both. Valgus deformity of the ankle developed when the growth of the distal tibial physis exceeded the distal sliding of the fibula, as shown by the stereophotogrammetric analyses and orthoroentgenograms. Growth arrest in the distal tibial physis and continued growth in the distal fibular physis resulted in proximal sliding of the fibula, as shown by the roentgenstereophotogrammetric analyses and serial orthoroentgenograms. This mechanism compensated to some extent for the overgrowth of the fibula. Simultaneous growth arrest in both the distal tibial and the distal fibular physis was associated with movement of the distal end of the fibula in a distal direction relative to the tibia, probably due to the more rapid growth in the proximal fibular physis than in the proximal tibial growth plate. Therefore, growth arrest of the distal tibial or fibular physis may result in either proximal or distal sliding of the fibular metaphysis in relation to the tibial metaphysis. Probably growth arrest in the distal fibular physis has a less favorable prognosis than arrest in the distal tibial physis, because after tibial arrest proximal sliding of the fibula may compensate for overgrowth of the fibula better than distal sliding of the fibula can compensate for fibular arrest and overgrowth of the tibia.     

胫骨pilon骨折受伤机制的有限元分析

目的 探讨胫骨pilon骨折发生过程中胫腓骨及远端关节面的应力分布规律。方法 选择1名健康男性志愿者建立胫腓骨及距骨的三维有限元模型,根据骨折发生特点设定工况,在中立位、背伸、跖屈、内翻、外翻5种不同工况下从距骨远端向近端进行静力加载,并将模型与地面进行碰撞。结果 在静载荷下,中立位应力主要分布于踝间线以前的内踝、胫骨踝穴顶前缘及外踝,背仲位应力主要分布于外踝及胫骨踝穴顶前部,跖屈位应力分布于胫骨踝穴顶后部,内翻位应力主要分布于外踝关节面及胫骨踝穴顶外侧部,外翻位应力主要分布于外踝关节面。在碰撞情况下,中立位应力分布与静载荷下一致,背伸立应力主要分布于踝间线以前,跖屈位应力主要分布于胫骨踝穴顶之踝间线后部及外踝关节面,内翻立应力主要分布于胫骨踝穴顶外部及外踝,外翻位应力主要分布于内踝、外踝及踝间线前部。腓骨关节面存静载荷作用下均处于高应力分布状态,在碰撞过程中亦最早接受应力分布。结论 腓骨是胫骨pilon骨折发生中最早受累且受累较重的部位。胫腓骨远端关节面在骨折发生中存在4个主要应力分布区,此4个应力区向近端延伸为内、外、前、后4个柱。     

Percutaneous epiphyseodesis for treating limb length inequality in children --results after termination of growth]

Results of percutaneous epiphyseodesis for limb length egalization in 25 children (10 girls and 15 boys) after termination of growth are presented. Mean age at the surgery was 12.9 years (range 10.9-14.4 years), mean limb length discrepancy 4.3 cm (range 2-10 cm), mean follow-up was 50 months (range 14-86 months). In 17 cases distal femoral epiphyseodesis was done, in 7 cases distal femoral, proximal tibial and fbular and in 1 case only proximal tibial and fibular epiphyseodesis was performed. In 13 cases CT served to assess the area of removed physis. Among complications knee hemarthrosis was encountered twice and once subcutaneous hematoma of the lower leg occurred. At the final follow-up full range of motion in the knee and correct axial alignment was observed in all cases. Residual limb length discrepancy was 1.3 cm (range 0-4 cm). Between 20 and 60% of total area of the physis was destroyed. Yearly rate of femoral bone growth inhibition was the same in patients with 27% and 40% of physis removed.     

Classification, diagnosis, and treatment of transitional fractures of the distal part of the tibia

I studied the anatomical relationships in thirty-two transitional fractures of the distal part of the tibia by standard radiography and in thirteen of these patients by computerized axial tomography. Three different configurations of fractures could be identified: biplane fractures and two different types of triplane fractures (Type I and Type II). In the biplane lesion the fracture is restricted to the epiphysis, while the triplane fractures are characterized by a wedge of metaphyseal bone. In the Type-I triplane lesion the metaphyseal portion of the fracture ends in the physis, while in the Type-II triplane lesion the metaphyseal portion of the fracture line extends through the physis into the epiphysis and the joint. On the anteroposterior radiograph, the epiphyseal fracture line in both the biplane and the two types of triplane fractures may be found anywhere from the extreme medial to the extreme lateral position. Its location, however, is exclusively dependent on the maturity of the distal tibial physis and is not influenced by the mechanism of injury. The use of computerized axial tomography has revealed the true dimensions of these fractures, and the diagnosis of biplane and triplane fractures can now be made by standard radiography alone. However, the evaluation of undisplaced or only slightly displaced Type-II triplane fractures will still occasionally require the use of computerized axial tomography. Displaced transitional fractures with a fracture gap of more than two millimeters in the weight-bearing portion of the epiphysis require open reduction. If the gap is less than two millimeters, non-operative treatment with a plaster cast is sufficient.     

Osgood-Schlatter's disease and tibial tuberosity development.

The growth plate of the tibial tuberosity does not develop until several months after birth and is structurally different than most growth plates that are loaded primarily in compression. Histologically, it is particularly different from the juxtaposed proximal tibial growth plate. The physis of the tibial tuberosity is composed primarily of fibrocartilage and fibrous tissue, with bone being added to the anterior portion of the tibial metaphysis by membranous bone formation. Initially very little of the growth plate is comprised of columnated cells, but by the time of maturation of the tuberosity, with the exception being the most distal region, the columnar portion has extended distally and is found under most of the tuberosity. These structural features would be an adaptation to the strong tensile forces exerted in this region. That human "traction" apophyses may be histologically different from "compression" epiphyses seems not to have been demonstrated previously. Osgood-Schlatter's disease would appear to be an inability of the developing secondary ossification center to withstand tensile forces, resulting in avulsion of segments of the ossification center, and eventual formation of extra bone(s) between the fragments.     

Posttraumatic tibia valga: a case demonstrating asymmetric activity at the proximal growth plate on technetium bone scan

Posttraumatic tibia valga is a well-recognized complication following fracture of the upper tibial metaphysis in young children. We present a case of a child who developed a valgus deformity following fracture of the proximal tibia and fibula in which quantitative bone scintigraphy at 5 months after injury demonstrated increased uptake at the proximal tibial growth plate with proportionally greater uptake on the medial side. This finding suggests that the valgus deformity in this patient was due to a relative increase in vascularity and consequent overgrowth of the medial portion of the proximal tibial physis.     

下肢骨折牵引复位器的设计和临床初步应用

目的 探讨自行研制的下肢骨折牵引复位器用于下肢长骨骨折微创手术中的骨折复位的安全性和有效性.方法 2007年2月至2009年3月采用闭合或者有限切开复位、经皮钢板螺钉内固定治疗股骨远端及胫骨干骺端骨折34例,依据AO-OTA分类标准,其中股骨远端骨折3例(33-B型2例,33-C型1例),胫骨近端骨折14例(41-A型9例,41-B型3例,41-C型2例),胫骨远端骨折17例(43-A型9例,43-B型5例,43-C型3例,其中2例为Gustilo Ⅰ a);采用闭合复位、带锁髓内钉内固定治疗胫骨干骨折36例(42-A型7例,42-B型21例,42-C型8例,其中4例为Gustilo Ⅰ a).术中均应用自行设计的下肢骨折牵引复位器辅助骨折复位.70例患者平均年龄37.6岁(17～63岁),受伤至手术的平均时间4.7 d(0.7～12.0 d).记录术中骨折复位所需时间、骨折复位所需术中C臂机透视时间.拉线测量髂前上棘至第1、2趾蹼间的直线是否大致经过髌骨中心点,判断患肢术后力线的恢复.术后记录双下肢长度(棘踝线测量)的差值以判断患肢术后长度的恢复.以术后骨折的X线正、侧位片分别测量骨折复位后内外翻、前后向成角角度.结果 70例患者术中骨折复位所需时间12.7 min(7～31 min).骨折复位所需术中X线透视时间1.3 min(0.4～3.0 min).双下肢长度的差值为(6.5±1.1)mm,双下肢力线差值为(7.0±1.8)mm.患肢术后长度及力线恢复满意.骨折复位后X线片测量,内外翻角度(2.75±0.16)°;前后向成角角度(5.13±0.51)°.结论 下肢骨折牵引复位器在下肢长骨骨折微创手术中,不但能辅助医生获得满意的骨折复位,而且能在内固定物置入过程中稳定地维持骨折复位,操作简单、使用方便.     

Salter-Harris I and II fractures of the distal tibia: does mechanism of injury relate to premature physeal closure?

INTRODUCTION: The distal tibial physis is the second most commonly injured physis in long bones. Recent reports demonstrate a high rate of premature physeal closure (PPC) in Salter-Harris (SH) type I or II fractures of the distal tibia. METHODS: At our institution, 137 distal tibial SH type I or II fractures were treated from 1994 to 2002. Reviews were performed on all patients and 91 fractures met inclusion criteria. Patients were categorized according to treatment. RESULTS: We report a PPC rate of 39.6% in SH type I or II fractures of the distal tibial physis. We found a difference in PPC based on injury mechanism. The rate of PPC in patients with a supination-external-rotation-type injury was 35%, whereas patients with pronation-abduction-type injuries developed PPC in 54% of cases. Type of treatment may prevent PPC in some fractures. The most important determinant of PPC is the fracture displacement following reduction. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: PPC is a common problem following SH type I or II fractures of the distal tibia. Operative treatment may decrease the frequency of PPC in some fractures. Regardless of treatment method, we recommend anatomic reduction to decrease the risk of PPC.     

Tibial shaft fracture and ankle joint injury

OBJECTIVE: Detection of tibial fractures in which a concomitant ankle injury may exist. DESIGN: Prospective study. SETTING: Department of Trauma Surgery, University Hospital. PATIENTS: 43 (20.1%) of 214 patients with a tibial fracture were found to have an associated injury of the ankle joint. INTERVENTION: Analysis of all patients with tibial fractures regarding typical mechanisms of injuries and typical radiographic criteria for concomitant injuries of the ankle joint. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary x-rays were analyzed looking for spiral fractures of the tibia or proximal fibular fractures or an intact fibula, typically associated with syndesmotic injury. The assessment of patients was based on radiological findings and functional recovery. RESULTS: 45 ankle injuries in 43 patients were found. There were distal fibular fractures in 14, Maisonneuve fractures in 13, isolated ruptures of the syndesmosis in 3, fractures of the posterior malleolus in 8, and fractures of the medial malleolus in 7 of the cases. In 38 of the 43 patients, the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis was ruptured, and 88.4% of the tibia injuries were spiral fractures located in the distal third. Of the 38 patients who could be followed, 31 were categorized according to the Phillip's Score as very good, 3 as good, 2 as satisfactory, and 2 as unsatisfactory after an average of 19.8 months (12-26). CONCLUSION: Due to the obvious injury of the tibia, the potential instability of the ankle joint is often overlooked, and the risk of development of secondary osteoarthritis is often consequently underestimated. Added attention should be paid to the ankle in the following tibial fracture cases: pronation-eversion trauma, spiral fracture of the tibia, proximal fibular fracture, or intact fibula. Using these markers, we were able to diagnose 20.1% of combined injuries compared to our retrospective study in 1999, in which only 13.6% of these injuries could be detected (Pearson r=0.1305, not significant).     

Premature closure of distal fibular growth plate: a case of longitudinal syndesmosis instability

Post-traumatic premature closure of distal fibular growth plate is a rare entity and results in shortened lateral malleolus. This can lead to lateral wedging of distal tibial epiphysis, valgus ankle and medial ankle instability. Ramsey and Hamilton noted experimentally that loss of fibular length caused a dramatic lateral shift in tibiotalar surfaces. Even a displacement of as little as 1 mm will distort the areas of tibiotalar contact and lead to early joint degeneration. Colton believed it is due to the oblique articular surface of the malleolus is no longer closely applied to the talus. We present a case of premature closure of distal fibular physis with lateral malleolar shortening. Ankle arthroscopy demonstrated syndesmosis instability resulted from shortened lateral malleolus and stability restored after fibular lengthening.     

Die Arthrodese des oberen Sprunggelenks über den sog. transfibularen Zugang

OBJECTIVE: Bony fusion between tibia and talus in neutral position of foot. Return to a pain-free function of the lower limb. INDICATIONS: Extensive loss of articular cartilage accompanied by a painful and considerably limited motion with or without malalignment. Partial avascular necrosis of talar dome or distal tibial epiphysis. Neuroarthropathy (Charcot joint) with progressive malalignment of ankle. Revision surgery after failed total ankle arthroplasty. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Acute purulent joint infection. Total avascular necrosis of talus. SURGICAL TECHNIQUE: Posterolateral approach to the distal fibula taking care to preserve the periosteal vessels. Fibular osteotomy from proximal lateral to distal medial. Division of the anterior tibiofibular, anterior fibulotibial, and fibulocalcaneal ligaments. Division of posterior tibiofibular ligament. Transverse planar resection of tibial and talar articular surfaces. Freshening of the medial malleolus. Resection of the tip of medial malleolus through a medial incision. Positioning of talus perpendicular to the tibia, paying attention to the valgus of the hindfoot and external rotation. Temporary fixation with Kirschner wires. Radiographic control in two planes followed by fixation with two or three lag screws. Removal of the medial fibular cortex, freshening of the lateral gutter, and fixation of the distal fibular fragments to tibia and talus with cortical screws. RESULTS: 20 arthrodeses in 19 patients were followed up for an average of 39 months (12-69 months). All arthrodeses were fused. In one patient a fibular pseudarthrosis was encountered. All arthrodeses healed in a correct position but one that consolidated with a pes equinus of 3 degrees . The average AOFAS (American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society) hindfoot score reached 78.5 points (40-86 points). A marked reduction of symptoms and satisfactory function were reported postoperatively by all patients. All would be willing to undergo surgery again.     

Symptomatic ossicle lesion at the anterior tip of the medial malleolus in soccer players

BackgroundUnfused accessory ossification centers in the medial ankle are sometimes misdiagnosed and should be distinguished from other bone lesions such as fracture, stress fracture, os subtibiale, or pseudoarthrosis of the medial malleolus. The purpose of this study was to report our experience in treating soccer players with bony elements in the subtibial region.MethodsWe surgically treated seven soccer players who experienced medial ankle pain with bony fragments at the tip of the medial malleolus. Their ages were between 13 and 27 years. The mean duration from symptom onset to hospital visit was 4.7 years (range: 2 months to 14 years). The bony lesion located at the anterior tip of the medial malleolus in all patients and we diagnosed the lesion as an unfused accessory ossification center.ResultsThree types of surgical treatments were performed in patients according to age, ossicle size, status of the epiphyseal plate, and degenerative changes around the lesion. Bony fusion was achieved in patients who underwent open reduction and fusion with bone graft. Patients who underwent focal drilling or removal of the bony fragment experienced improvement in symptoms, and all patients were allowed to resume their sports or full preinjury activities.ConclusionWe believe that surgery is the first-line treatment for the patients with unfused accessory ossification centers with their prolonged symptom and favorable outcomes can be expected. Bony fusion should be attempted in the patients with the large ossicle especially in their growth period.