Incidence and management of hydrocele following varicocele surgery in children

PURPOSE: Hydrocele seems to be the most frequent complication in children who undergo surgery for varicocele and the issue of the optimal management of hydrocele remains controversial. In this retrospective study we evaluated the incidence and management of hydrocele following surgical treatment of varicocele in children treated at 8 European centers of pediatric surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a 5-year period 278 children between 7 and 17 years old underwent surgical treatment for unilateral left varicocele, including 187 using video surgery and 91 via an open inguinal approach. RESULTS: At an average followup of 24 months (range 12 to 60) 34 children (12.2%) had a left hydrocele. Of the 278 children 14 (5%) were lost to followup. The hydrocele appeared between 1 week and 44 months (median 2 months) after surgery. Concerning hydrocele management 16 of 34 children (47%) were treated with scrotal puncture while under local anesthesia, which led to hydrocele regression after a median of 3 punctures (range 1 to 5), 12 (35.3%) underwent clinical observation since the hydrocele reduced spontaneously within a median of 12 months after its appearance and 6 (17.7%) were treated with open surgery. In 4 cases the hydrocele disappeared and in 2 it recurred after surgery and was successfully treated with punctures. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that the median incidence of hydrocele after varicocele surgery is about 12% but it seems higher after artery nonsparing vs sparing procedures (17.6% vs 4.3%). On the contrary, no difference was found when the procedure was performed using video surgery or with the open approach. Hydroceles generally develop a few months later but may also appear several years after the surgical repair of varicocele. Noninvasive procedures (scrotal punctures or clinical observation) seem to induce total hydrocele regression in more than 82% of cases. Children who undergo surgery for varicocele should undergo long-term followup to detect a possible hydrocele. In fact, the 5.4% of children lost to followup in our study may potentially have had a hydrocele. Surgery is not always successful for this condition, as shown in the 2 cases of recurrent hydrocele after surgical repair.     

The significance of clinical practice guidelines on adult varicocele detection and management

Varicoceles are the most common correctable etiology of male factor infertility. However, the detection and management of varicoceles have not been standardized. This has led to decades of debate regarding the effect of varicocele on male infertility and subsequently whether repair leads to an improved fertility status. The current body of evidence investigating the role of varicocele and varicocelectomy is weak and conflicting. The stance taken by the AUA and ASRM suggests that there is insufficient outcomes data to support evidenced-based guidelines, citing evidence used to provide current recommendations are generally of a low quality level. On the other hand, the EAU Guidelines give a level 1a of evidence for management of varicoceles that are clinically palpable, associated with subnormal semen analyses and having otherwise unexplained fertility. Besides aiding with clinical varicocele detection and management, clinical practice opinion statements and guidelines aim to direct and strengthen the infrastructure of future studies. We review the current status of opinion statements and guidelines in varicocele and management detection with focus on their application in practice.     

Predictors of improved seminal characteristics by varicocele repair

The aim of this study was to investigate predictors of the improvement of semen characteristics after low ligation for patients with varicoceles. The records of 97 oligozoospermic patients who underwent microsurgical left or bilateral inguinal varicocele repair were retrospectively evaluated. We assessed factors that could be predictors of the improvement of semen characteristics using logistic regression analysis. We evaluated age, testicular volume, varicocele grade, serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone, testosterone, sperm concentration and motility before low ligation. Among the 97 patients, sperm concentration improved from 6.4 ± 5.8 to 24.2 ± 35.1 million ml⁻¹ and sperm motility increased from 32.8 ± 24.9% to 41.0 ± 14.6% in 55 patients (57%). In logistic regression analysis, pre-operative serum FSH and testosterone concentration were predictors of sperm concentration improvement. Varicocele repair improved sperm concentration and motility. Low serum FSH and high testosterone are significant factors predicting the improvement of semen characteristics before low ligation.     

The effect of varicocele repair on testicular volume in children and adolescents with varicocele

PURPOSE: We investigated the effect of varicocele repair on testicular volume according to age in children and adolescents and review the long-term results of varicocele surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 39 boys 11 to 19 years old with clinical palpable varicocele who underwent varicocele surgery with at least 1 year of postoperative followup. Preoperative and postoperative testicular volumes were monitored and measured with an ellipsoid Prader orchidometer. Physical examination findings (testicular volumes and testicular consistency) in all boys, and serum hormone values and semen parameters in 16 adolescents were recorded and compared before and after surgery. RESULTS: Left unilateral varicocelectomy was done in 29 boys (74%) and bilateral varicocelectomy in 10 (26%). While no postoperative hematoma, infection or testicular atrophy was observed, 1 boy (2.5%) had varicocele recurrence and 2 boys (5.1%) had minimal hydroceles that required no intervention. Significant increases were observed in postoperative sperm concentration (p = 0.01), total motile sperm count (p = 0.009), testis volume (p = 0.000) and serum testosterone level (p = 0.014). All 15 boys with preoperative soft testis had normal testicular consistency postoperatively. Of the 19 boys with preoperative testicular atrophy 10 (53%) did regain normal testicular growth, while 9 (47%) retained testicular volume loss after surgery. When comparing preoperative to postoperative increase in testicular volume according to age in all boys, the mean was statistically significantly higher in boys younger than 14 years (left testis p = 0.037, right testis p = 0.000). CONCLUSIONS: Testicular consistency achieved normal firmness after varicocelectomy in all boys with preoperative soft testis. While there was catch-up growth in comparison to the contralateral testis, testicular consistency improved but testicular volumes may not increase significantly after varicocele repair at ages older than 14 years. However, in these adolescents postoperative semen parameters and serum hormone values may significantly improve regardless of testicular volume. Therefore, boys with varicocele and their families should be fully informed in light of these findings.     

两种术式治疗精索静脉曲张疗效的比较

目的对比分析显微镜下精索内静脉低位结扎与传统Palomo术式治疗精索静脉曲张的手术并发症发生率及精子质量改善情况。方法研究对象为西京医院收治的142例精索静脉曲张患者,其中68例接受了显微镜下精索静脉低位结扎术（A组）,74例接受了传统的Palomo术式（B组）,对两组手术时间、并发症发生率以及术前、术后精液分析结果进行对比分析。结果A组手术时间（53±11）min,B组手术时间（22±7）min,A组长于B组,P〈0．05;术后并发症两组比较,A组阴囊水肿4例（5．8％）,附睾炎4例（5．8％）,B组阴囊水肿15例（20．3％）,附睾炎9例（12．2％）,两组术后并发症发生率差异有统计学意义,P〈0．05;两组术后精子质量均有显著改善,但A组术后精子计数、密度、活力和活率均明显高于B组,A组术后精子计数（43．00±4．31）×10。、活率（65．00±4．55）％,B组术后精子计数（37．20±5．45）×10。、活率（53．34±6．73）％,P〈0．05。结论显微镜下精索内静脉低位结扎术治疗精索静脉曲张术后并发症少,精子质量改善程度优于传统Palomo术式。     

经外环精索静脉结扎术与腹腔镜高位结扎治疗精索静脉曲张的评价

目的评价开放手术经外环小切口精索静脉结扎术与腹腔镜高位结扎术两种术式对治疗精索静脉曲张(varicocele,VC)的临床应用价值。方法70例病人中经外环结扎术38例,腹腔镜高位结扎术32例。结果两组在手术时间和住院时间上均无明显差异(P>0.05),住院费用有明显差异(P<0.05);术后6个月随访,经外环低位结扎者无1例复发,腹腔镜高位结扎者中5例复发,占15.63%,两组间差异有显著性(P<0.05);精子质量均有明显改善,两组间差异无显著性(P>0.05)。结论经外环小切口精索静脉低位结扎比腹腔镜精索静脉高位结扎有明显的优点,是一种治疗单侧VC的经济、有效的方法。     

腹腔镜精索血管集束状丝线结扎治疗精索静脉曲张疗效分析

目的探讨腹腔镜精索血管集束状丝线结扎精索静脉曲张的疗效。方法腹腔镜精索血管集束状丝线结扎治疗精索静脉曲张23例。结果23例手术均取得成功，术中无并发症，手术时间25～45min，平均37min，平均住院3～5d，随访3～12个月，曲张静脉均消失，无睾丸萎缩等并发症发生。结论腹腔镜精索血管集束状丝线结扎术疗效可靠，简单实用易操作、创伤小、并发症少、患者恢复快，有推广价值。     

Antegrade scrotal sclerotherapy and varicocele

Antegrade scrotal sclerotherapy is a simple and easy technique for the treatment of varicocele. The success rate varies between 87% and 95%. The initial reflux grade and the number of collateral vessels of the spermatic vein are the most important factors to predict the outcome of the technique. The postoperative complication rate is about 7% and the common ones are scrotal hematoma and epididymo-orchitis of slight severity. Testicular athrophy is a rare event (0.6%). This technique offers a considerable cost reduction compared to other therapeutic options currently available for varicocele.     

The assessment of oxidative stress in infertile patients with varicocele

OBJECTIVES

To assess oxidative stress markers, antioxidant capacity and cytokines in seminal plasma from infertile patients with varicocele, and to investigate seminal oxidative status and sperm DNA damage after varicocelectomy.

PATIENTS, SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The records were retrospectively evaluated for 28 azoospermic, 30 oligospermic (15 with varicocele and 15 without) and 30 patients with normal semen characteristics (15 with varicocele and 15 without). The mean (sd ) age of the men was 32.4 (5.6) years; all men with varicocele had a unilateral or bilateral microsurgical subinguinal varicocelectomy. The level of nitric oxide (NO), 8‐hydroxy‐2′‐deoxyguanosine (8‐OHdG), hexanoyl‐lysine (HEL), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, interleukin (IL)‐6, IL‐8 and tumour necrosis factor‐α in seminal plasma were measured. In addition, sperm DNA fragmentation was analysed before and 6 months after varicocelectomy.

RESULTS

Azoospermic and oligospermic patients had a significantly higher HEL concentration and SOD activity in seminal plasma; those with varicocele had a significantly higher NO, HEL, and SOD activity in seminal plasma. There was a significant increase in sperm concentration and reduction in NO, HEL, 8‐OHdG level and SOD activity after varicocelectomy. Oligospermic patients with varicocele had a significantly higher IL‐6 level in seminal plasma, and there was a significant reduction after varicocelectomy. The percentage of apoptosis‐positive sperm decreased significantly after varicocelectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that the seminal plasma of patients with varicocele is under excessive oxidative stress, and partly even in patients with normospermia, and that varicocelectomy reduces oxidative stress in seminal plasma and ameliorates sperm DNA damage.     

双孔三通道与传统腹腔镜下精索静脉高位结扎术对比研究

目的:观察双孔三通道与传统腹腔镜精索静脉高位结扎术疗效,探讨双孔三通道精索静脉高位结扎术临床应用价值。方法:2011年1月至2013年3月我院78例(89侧)精索静脉曲张患者,随机分成两组。改良组38例,行双孔三通道腹腔镜精索静脉高位结扎术;传统组40例,行传统腹腔镜精索静脉高位结扎术。对两组患者安全性和临床疗效对比分析。术后3个月观察两种术式切口瘢痕,进行满意度评分。结果:38例患者行双孔三通道腹腔镜精索静脉高位结扎术均顺利完成。手术时间[单侧:(21.3±1.5)min;双侧:(32.5±2.3)min],术中、术后并发症,住院时间[(3.2±0.3)d vs(3.7±0.7)d]与恢复时间(1天下床率87%vs 78%),症状缓解[阴囊疼痛缓解率(73%vs 58%]与精子浓度[(26.25±10.22)×106/ml vs(29.13±11.41)×106/ml]、活动率[(52.36±9.82)%vs(55.26±11.34)%],与传统腹腔镜组比较无显著性差异(P0.05)。观察术后3个月切口瘢痕改良组明显优于传统组。改良组患者对瘢痕满意度综合评分[(2.69±0.32)分],与传统腹腔镜组[(1.27±0.21)分]比较差异有显著性(P0.05)。结论:双孔三通道腹腔镜精索静脉高位结扎术安全、微创、美观、经济、简便,是可选手术中较为理想的术式,值得临床推广。     

Preserved testicular artery at varicocele repair

Whether or not varicocele causes infertility is a contentiously debated issue. This study aimed to compare semen parameters and pregnancy rate in infertile males who underwent varicocelectomy with preserved or accidentally ligated testicular artery. Ninety-five infertile oligoasthenozoospermic patients with left-sided varicocele were subjected to subinguinal varicocelectomy with trial of preserving testicular artery. According to absence or presence of testicular artery in the histological excised pedicle the cases were divided into two groups; group 1 ( n  = 60) with preserved testicular artery and group 2 ( n  = 35) where the artery was accidentally ligated being not defined or injured. Semen analysis was carried out after 4, 8 and 12 months and post-operative pregnancy rate was assessed after 1 year. Serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH) and total testosterone (T) were estimated pre- and post-operatively. Semen parameters (total sperm count, sperm concentration and sperm motility) showed significant increase post-operatively compared with pre-operative parameters but were comparable in both groups with no significant difference. Serum FSH, LH, T hormones and pregnancy rate (23.3% versus 22.9%) 1 year post-operatively showed no significant difference. It is concluded that accidental ligation of testicular artery has no deleterious effect on semen parameters during primary varicocele repair if the testicular arterial supply was not compromised.     

不同术式治疗胡桃夹综合征所致左侧精索静脉曲张的疗效分析

目的探讨不同术式治疗胡桃夹综合征所致左侧精索静脉曲张的临床疗效。方法回顾性分析郑州大学第一附属医院在2015年7月至2018年9月期间诊治的胡桃夹综合征所致左侧精索静脉中重度曲张患者的临床资料。56例患者共分为3组,24例患者行显微镜下左侧精索静脉低位结扎术+精索外静脉剥离切除术为低位结扎组;19例患者行开放性左侧精索静脉高位结扎术为高位结扎组;13例患者左侧精索静脉中重度曲张并有血尿和/或蛋白尿,行腹腔镜下左肾静脉外支架固定术+生殖静脉结扎术,为血蛋白尿组。术后随访6~30个月,平均(11.5±6.5)月,患者于术前及术后6个月复查阴囊彩超及精液分析,对比精索静脉直径和精液恢复情况。结果①3组患者组内比较:精索静脉直径术后显著小于术前,精子浓度、精子活率术后显著高于术前,差异均有统计学意义(P均<0.01);组间比较:精子浓度3组间术前术后差异均无显著性统计学意义(P均>0.05);而精索静脉直径低位结扎组优于其他2组,精子活率的提高低位结扎组优于其他2组,差异均有统计学意义(P均<0.05)。②血蛋白尿组患者术后随访血尿、蛋白尿症状消失,左肾静脉受压状况明显改善,低位结扎组、高位结扎组左肾静脉受压状况无明显改善。结论显微镜下左侧精索静脉低位结扎术是治疗胡桃夹综合征所致左侧精索静脉中重度曲张的一种姑息、有效的手术方式。     

精索静脉曲张手术方式的选择

目的 探讨在采用腹膜后精索静脉高位结扎术治疗精索静脉曲张的手术方法中，腹腔镜是否较开放手术更具优越性。方法 回顾性分析42例应用腹腔镜精索静脉高位结扎和53例应用开放手术经腹膜后精索静脉高位结扎术的病例。结果 两组病例在手术时间和术后住院时间上均无明显差异。术后恢复快，随访无复发和睾丸萎缩。结论 单侧精索静脉曲张，小切口腹膜后精索静脉高位结扎术仍值得首先推荐，对于双侧和复发的精索静脉曲张，则可以优先考虑腹腔镜手术。     

经脐单孔腹腔镜丝线结扎法治疗精索静脉曲张20例报告

目的:探讨经脐单孔腹腔镜下用丝线结扎法治疗精索静脉曲张的疗效. 方法:回顾分析我院采用经脐单孔腹腔镜下丝线结扎法治疗20例精索静脉曲张与24例既往三孔腹腔镜法的临床效果对比. 结果:所有手术均获成功,单孔手术时间20～35 min,平均28 min,术后平均住院时间2d,三孔手术15～28 min,平均20 min,平...     

Age is a significant predictor of early and late improvement in semen parameters after microsurgical varicocele repair

Accumulating evidence indicates that varicocele repair improves sperm quality. However, longitudinal changes in sperm parameters and predictors of improved semen characteristics after surgery have not been fully investigated. We retrospectively reviewed data from 100 men who underwent microsurgical subinguinal varicocele repair at a single centre. Follow‐up semen examinations were carried out at 3, 6 and 12 months post‐operatively. Logistic regression was used to identify predictors of early (3 months) and late (≥6 months) improvement in semen parameters after varicocele repair. At 3 months post‐operatively, 76.1% of the patients had improved total motile sperm counts, which continued to improve significantly up to 12 months post‐operatively (p = .016). When comparing changes in semen parameters between younger (<37 years) and older (≥37 years) men, post‐operative improvements in sperm concentration and motility were greater among younger men. Multivariate analysis showed that younger age was associated with early (p = .043) and late (p = .010) post‐operative improvement in total motile sperm count. Our findings indicate that early varicocele repair improved semen parameters after surgery.     

Testicular growth and gonadotrophin response associated with varicocele repair in adolescent males

OBJECTIVE: To measure testicular volume and the gonadotrophin response to gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation in adolescents undergoing left varicocelectomy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Thirteen adolescents undergoing varicocelectomy had their testicular volume and endocrine function evaluated before and after surgery. RESULTS: The initial left testicular volume was consistently smaller than the right but after surgery both increased. Baseline follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels and the FSH response to GnRH stimulation increased after surgery. There were no differences in luteinizing hormone and testosterone levels, and no changes in Tanner staging. CONCLUSIONS: Unilateral varicocelectomy with ipsilateral testicular atrophy results in bilateral testicular growth and increased FSH levels. In adolescent development, elevated FSH levels in conjunction with an increased response to the GnRH stimulation test represent a normal physiological response. The GnRH stimulation test cannot be used to determine which adolescent would benefit from surgical repair.     

A rare cause of infertility: intratesticular varicocele associated with ipsilateral extratesticular varicocele

Intratesticular varicocele is an uncommon condition with variable sonographic appearence and identified as dilated intratesticular veins lying from the mediastinum through testicular parenchyma. We present a case of a 20‐year‐old male, married and unable to conceive for 2 years. Routine scrotal sonography disclosed extratesticular varicocele which was associated with ipsilateral intratesticular varicocele. Colour Doppler ultrasonography should be the first choice modality of imaging to confirm the diagnosis. Detection of intratesticular varicocele is essential because it is one of the most common recoverable reasons of male infertility.     

Recurrence of varicocele after high retroperitoneal repair: implications of intraoperative venography

PURPOSE: We determined whether intraoperative venography results in a decreased recurrence rate after varicocele repair in adolescence. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We evaluated 177 male adolescents 14 to 19 years old who underwent varicocele repair via the high retroperitoneal approach with artery sparing and intraoperative venography. RESULTS: Overall the recurrence rate was 2.8% (5 of 177 cases) in the venography group and 11% in historical controls without venography. We identified left-to-right cross communicating vessels in 3 patients with recurrence. Intraoperatively venography revealed nonligated vessels in 21 patients (12%), resulting in revision and repair during the same procedure. CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative venography seems to decrease the rate of recurrence. Left-to-right cross communicating vessels may be present in some adolescents with recurrence after varicocelectomy.     

Predictors of improved seminal parameters and fertility after varicocele repair in young adults

The aim of our study was to determine hormonal or biochemical markers in patients with clinically palpable left varicocele but without a history of infertility, with especial emphasis on nitric oxide, related with improved seminal parameters after varicocelectomy. Semen samples were obtained from 202 patients with left varicocele grade II or III. Nitric oxide levels in seminal plasma were determined by the Griess technique. Testicular volume was determined ultrasonographically in both testes and hormonal profile was measured. The post-operative sperm concentration increased significantly in patients with normal sperm count or moderate oligozoospermia, but we did not find an increment in sperm count in patients with mild and severe oligozoospermia after surgery . The mean percentage of normal motility significantly increased after surgery, but we did not observe a significant increment in morphologically normal sperm count and testicular volume after varicocele repair. Moreover, we did not find any correlation between nitric oxide concentrations and severity of oligozoospermia, asthenozoospermia or abnormal sperm morphology in this population. It is concluded that in the general male population, varicocele repair is not associated with an improved semen profile in all cases. We did not observe a significant correlation between nitric oxide concentrations and semen profile.