CT dose: how to measure, how to reduce

The fundamental radiation dose parameter in computed tomography (CT) is the CT dose index (CTDI), which is an integral under the radiation dose profile of a single axial scan normalized to the nominal x-ray beam width. It estimates the average dose from a multiple-scan examination and is a directly measurable and standardized quantity. From this information, the dose length product (DLP) is calculated, which estimates the total dose delivered over a specific scan length. Finally, effective dose can be estimated and used to reflect the risk of a non-uniform exposure in terms of a whole-body exposure. To manage dose from CT while maintaining diagnostic image quality, scanner manufacturers have implemented tube current modulation, which may occur angularly around the patient, along the long axis of the patient, or both. Dose reductions of 20 to 50% have been reported using tube current modulation schemes. In the past two decades, the capabilities of CT imaging have expanded tremendously, including narrower image widths, improved temporal and spatial resolution, shorter scan times, and cardiac imaging techniques. Yet, the dose per typical exam (e.g., routine abdominal CT) has decreased by a factor of two or more over the same time period. Therefore, patients should be reassured that the benefits of medically-justified and appropriately-performed CT examinations are associated with radiation doses that continue to decrease as technology continues to evolve.     

宽排CT探测器CT剂量指数应用初探

目的:随着射线宽度的不断增加,传统CT剂量指数(CTDI)在表征CT剂量时遇到瓶颈问题,不能够很好地表征宽排CT探测器的剂量水平。本文探讨CTDI在CT宽排探测器剂量表征量方面的概念演化和应用方式。方法:介绍传统CTDI表征CT剂量的原理和方式,展示传统CTDI在表征宽排CT探测器时的局限性,阐述宽排CT探测器CTDI剂量表征量方式的演变过程,初步探讨宽排CT探测器CTDI表征和测量。结果:IEC在对传统CTDI进行修正的基础上推出分层次CTDI表征的方式,能更好适应宽排CT探测器的剂量表征。通过多点分次测量,新定义的分层次CTDI仍然可采用传统的150mm有机玻璃CT剂量体模和100mm电离室进行测量。结论:分层次CTDI表征方式能在保留传统CTDI基本概念和常规测试条件的基础上较好地表征宽排CT探测器的剂量水平。     

Radiation doses during CT fluoroscopy

CT fluoroscopy (CTF) is a relatively new imaging modality that is particularly useful for performing complex biopsy procedures. Despite the obvious benefits, the potential exists to deliver considerable radiation doses to both the patients and medical staff. The purpose of our study was to quantify the radiation levels based upon typical clinical procedures. To assess the potential radiation risks, the patient radiation doses via the CT dose index (CTDI) method were measured during CTF for a GE Pro-Speed CT scanner using standardized head and body phantoms and a CT ionization chamber. The measurements were performed for a variety of kVp, mA, and slice thickness settings. To determine patient radiation doses, the CT kVp, mA, and total CTF scan times were recorded for various biopsy procedures. To determine the radiation doses to the hands of the radiologists, a radiation survey meter was used to measure the scattered radiation from standard phantoms. The effectiveness of various types of leaded gloves and shields were also determined. The measured CTDI values ranged from 20.4 cGy min(-1) to 63.1 cGy min(-1) of CTF. For a group of 78 patients, the clinically utilized imaging times varied from 13.0 to 407 s with an mean time of 96.6 s +/- 78.9 s (1 standard deviation). The scattered x-ray radiation at the position of the radiologists hands performing the biopsy procedures was measured to be 0.6 to 1.5 mGy min(-1). The thin leaded gloves provided a relatively minimal reduction in the scattered radiation to the hands between 11% and 44% dependent upon the kVp and the type of glove. However, floor mounted radiation shields reduced the scattered radiation levels to the body by 94% to 99%. In comparison to standard x-ray fluoroscopy, CTF employs much higher radiation dose rates due to the higher kVp, mA, and rotating geometry. It is important to minimize the radiation dose to patients and staff by limiting the imaging times, employing lower mA settings, and using appropriate radiation protection measures.     

Application of Gafchromic film in the study of dosimetry methods in CT phantoms

Gafchromic film has been used for measurement of computed tomography (CT) dose distributions within phantoms. The film was calibrated in the beam from a superficial therapy unit and the accuracy confirmed by comparison with measurements with a 20 mm long ionisation chamber. The results have been used to investigate approaches to CT dosimetry. Dose profiles were recorded within standard CT head and body phantoms and scatter tail data fitted to exponential functions and extrapolated to predict dose levels in longer phantoms. The data have been used to simulate both CT dose index (CTDI) measurements with ionisation chambers of differing length and measurements of cumulative doses with a 20 mm chamber for scans of varying length. The results show that the length of a pencil ionisation chamber is the most significant factor affecting measurements of weighted CTDI (CTDI(w)) and a 100 mm chamber would record 50-61% of the dose measured with a 450 mm one. The cumulative dose measured at the centre of a 150 mm long body phantom records over 70% of the equilibrium dose from a helical scan of a longer phantom. For routine CT dosimetry tests, the determination of correction factors could allow measurements with a 100 mm chamber to be used to derive the CTDI that would be recorded with a longer chamber, and cumulative doses measured with a 20 mm chamber in shorter phantoms to be used to calculate equilibrium doses for helical scans.     

CT剂量指数的研究

目的 研究用不同积分区间(±7 T和±50 mm)计算CT剂量指数(CTDI)时对结果的影响。方法 用热释光剂量计(TLD)在标准的CT剂量监测模体上,测量日立W-1000型CT机的单层扫描的剂量分布曲线,根据分布曲线计算不同积分区所对应的CTDI值。结果 对层厚大于7 mm(10 mm)的单层扫描,±50 mm积分长度所得的CTDI₁₀₀小于±7T积分长度所得的CTDI_F;对层厚小于7 mm(5 mm)的单层扫描,则CTDI₁₀₀大于CTDI_F。结论 当扫描层厚不是7 mm时,用100 mm活性长度的笔形电离室测得的CTDI₁₀₀与CTDI_F有差异,为了便于统一比较,应对不同层厚的扫描作适当修正。     

Towards establishment of the national reference dose levels from computed tomography examinations in Tanzania.

Without the knowledge of reference dose levels (RDLs) from computed tomography (CT) examinations, the optimal dose to patients undergoing CT examinations cannot be realised. The aim of this study was therefore to assess the radiation dose levels from CT examinations according to reference dose quantities proposed by the European Commission (EC) guidelines. The dosimetric quantities proposed in the EC for CT are weighted CT dose index (CTDI(w)) for a single slice and dose-length product (DLP) for a complete examination. The RDLs from five common CT examinations were obtained from eight hospitals. The RDLs in terms of CTDI(w) and DLP were estimated from measurements of CTDI in standard phantoms using typical exposure parameters. Mean values of CTDI(w) for head and lumbar spine had a range of 25-77 and 18-47 mGy, respectively, while those for chest, abdomen and pelvis had a range of about 11-25 mGy, respectively. Mean values of DLP for head, chest and abdomen had a range of 610-1684, 496-992 and 717-1428 mGy cm, respectively, while those for lumbar spine and pelvis had a range of 200-382 and 526-1302 mGy cm, respectively. Wide variations of mean CTDI(w) and DLP values among hospitals observed for similar CT examinations were mainly attributed to the variations of CT scanning protocols and scanner types. The mean CTDI(w) values per examination for almost all hospitals were below proposed RDLs, while the mean DLP values per examination were almost all above the proposed RDLs for all except one hospital. These were mainly influenced by the large scan length used in Tanzanian hospitals. In order to achieve the required level of dose for establishment of the national RDLs, it was concluded that further investigation of optimization of scanning protocols is needed.     

利用管电流自动调节技术降低常规头部CT的照射剂量

目的 探讨常规头部CT采用管电流自动调节技术(即TCM螺旋扫描模式)能否降低照射剂量和提高影像质量。方法 50例成人患者,分别接受常规头部CT的TCM螺旋和常规轴扫模式,常规轴扫参数:140 kV,170mA用于颅底部;120 kV,150 mA用于颅脑部,2s/周。TCM螺旋扫描参数:120 kV,280 mA(最大管电流阈值),0.8 s/周。扫描剂量直接取自设备剂量指示值(CTDI和DLP)。影像质量分别由两位专家采用双盲法,对头部CT的颅底、脑灰-白质层面以及全部影像逐层进行CT值、信噪比测量以及综合评估。结果 常规头部CT采用TCM螺旋扫描模式较轴扫模式可使患者有效降低管电流使用量(44±12)mA,扫描时间(4.8±0.8)s,照射剂量(38±0.9)%:[CTDI:(32.10±9.0)mGy、(55.00±7.2)mGy;DLP(442.10±72)mGy·cm、(668.00±26)mGy·cm];经计算人体吸收剂量可降低(1.5±0.4)mSv,并可有效提高影像质量。结论 经两种不同扫描模式所得影像的CT值测量结果及其他影像质量参数的对照,应用TCM螺旋扫描模式的影像质量完全可与轴扫描模式相媲美,同时具有可减少扫描时间和照射剂量的优越性。     

安徽省CT机剂量与低对比度分辨力的检测与分析

目的　全省CT机辐射剂量水平与低对比度分辨力之间的关系。方法　根据卫生部规定的统一方法[1] 。结果　 177台CT机 ,头部中心平均CTDI2 7.8mGy ,体部中心平均CTDI9.2mGy ;177台CT机中 2 1台低对比度检测不合格和合格时头部中心平均CTDI分别为 :2 3.9mGy、39.7mGy。 5 6台一手机中有 3台低对比度分辨力首次检测不合格。结论　低对比度分辨力在头部中心剂量 30mGy～ 5 0mGy为最佳 ,同时必须加强对CT机检测 ,才能保证其应用质量     

Spectroscopic biomedical imaging with the Medipix2 detector

This study confirms that the Medipix2 x-ray detector enables spectroscopic bio-medical plain radiography. We show that the detector has the potential to provide new, useful information beyond the limited spectroscopic information of modern dual-energy computed tomography (CT) scanners. Full spectroscopic 3D-imaging is likely to be the next major technological advance in computed tomography, moving the modality towards molecular imaging applications. This paper focuses on the enabling technology which allows spectroscopic data collection and why this information is useful. In this preliminary study we acquired the first spectroscopic images of human tissue and other biological samples obtained using the Medipix2 detector. The images presented here include the clear resolution of the 1.4mm long distal phalanx of a 20-week-old miscarried foetus, showing clear energy-dependent variations. The opportunities for further research using the forthcoming Medipix3 detector are discussed and a prototype spectroscopic CT scanner (MARS, Medipix All Resolution System) is briefly described.     

Assessment of concomitant testicular dose with radiochromic film

To assess the suitability of EBT2 and XRQA2 Gafchromic film for measuring low doses in the periphery of treatment fields, and to measure the accumulative concomitant dose to the contralateral testis resulting from CT imaging, pre-treatment imaging (CBCT) and seminoma radiotherapy with and without gonadal shielding. Superficial peripheral dose measurements made using EBT2 Gafchromic film on the surface of water equivalent material were compared to measurements made with an ionisation chamber in a water phantom to evaluate the suitability and accuracy of the film dosimeter for such measurements. Similarly, XRQA2 was used to measure surface doses within a kilovoltage beam and compared with ionisation chamber measurements. Gafchromic film was used to measure CT, CBCT and seminoma treatment related testicular doses on an anthropomorphic phantom. Doses were assessed for two clinical plans, both with and without gonadal shielding. Testicular doses resulting from the treatment of up to 0.83 ± 0.17 Gy were measured per treatment. Additional doses of up to 0.49 ± 0.01 and 2.35 ± 0.05 cGy were measured per CBCT and CT image, respectively. Reductions in the testicular dose in the order of 10, 36 and 78 % were observed when gonadal shielding was fitted for treatment, CT and CBCT imaging, respectively. Gafchromic film was found to be suitable for measuring dose in the periphery of treatment fields. The dose to the testis should be limited to minimise the risk of radiation related side effects. This can be achieved by using appropriate gonadal shielding, irrespective of the treatment fields employed.     

Comparison of scatter doses from a multislice and a single slice CT scanner

During shielding calculations for a new multislice CT (MSCT) scanner it was found that the manufacturer's data indicated significantly higher external scatter doses than would be generated for a single slice CT (SSCT). Even allowing for increased beam width, the manufacturer's data indicated that the scatter dose per scan was higher by a factor of about 3 to 4. The magnitude of the discrepancy was contrary to expectations and also contrary to a statement by the UK ImPACT group, which indicated that when beam width is taken into account, the scatter doses should be similar. The matter was investigated by comparing scatter doses from an SSCT and an MSCT. Scatter measurements were performed at three points using a standard perspex CTDI phantom, and CT dose indices were also measured to compare scanner output. MSCT measurements were performed with a 40 mm wide beam, SSCT measurements with a 10 mm wide beam. A film badge survey was also performed after the installation of the MSCT scanner to assess the adequacy of lead shielding in the room. It was found that the scatter doses from the MSCT were lower than indicated by the manufacturer's data. MSCT scatter doses were approximately 4 times higher than those from the SSCT, consistent with expectations due to beam width differences. The CT dose indices were similar, and the film badge survey indicated that the existing shielding, which had been adequate for the SSCT, was also adequate for the MSCT.     

Evaluation of MegaVoltage Cone Beam CT image quality with an unmodified Elekta Precise Linac and EPID: a feasibility study

In order to increase the accuracy of patient positioning for complex radiotherapy treatments various 3D imaging techniques have been developed. MegaVoltage Cone Beam CT (MVCBCT) can utilise existing hardware to implement a 3D imaging modality to aid patient positioning. MVCBCT has been investigated using an unmodified Elekta Precise Linac and iView amorphous silicon electronic portal imaging device (EPID). Two methods of delivery and acquisition have been investigated for imaging an anthropomorphic head phantom and quality assurance phantom. Phantom projections were successfully acquired and CT datasets reconstructed using both acquisition methods. Bone, tissue and air were clearly resolvable in both phantoms even with low dose (22 MU) scans. The feasibility of MVCBCT was investigated using a standard linac, amorphous silicon EPID and a combination of a free open source reconstruction toolkit as well as custom in-house software written in Matlab. The resultant image quality has been assessed and presented. Although bone, tissue and air were resolvable in all scans, artifacts are present and scan doses are increased when compared with standard portal imaging. The feasibility of MVCBCT with unmodified Elekta Precise Linac and EPID has been considered as well as the identification of possible areas for future development in artifact correction techniques to further improve image quality.     

电离室中心-X射线线束偏移距离对多排CTDI_（100）辐射剂量测定的影响

目的探索多排CT的X射线束平面与电离室中心刻度偏移距离（offset distance,Do）对辐射剂量指数（CTDI100）测量结果的影响规律。方法采用满足IEC标准的头部体模（T6M164）和长杆电离室,测量Philips Brilliance iCT 256在轴扫条件下不同偏移距离时的CTDI100值。结果当偏移距离在1cm时,误差在0%～5%范围内;当偏移距离为3 cm,误差在5%～15%范围内;当偏移距离在5 cm时,误差在25%～75%范围内。结论 CTDI100测量结果对Do值敏感度较高,测量者在测量时应保证线束应与电离室中心刻度无偏离;在半影区内辐射剂量不容忽视,散射线束使得周围4点位的测量值较中心点发散,床对测量结果影响表现为中心点外的4个点位的CTDI100空间对称性降低。     

Comparison of organ dosimetry methods and effective dose calculation methods for paediatric CT

Computed tomography (CT) is the single biggest ionising radiation risk from anthropogenic exposure. Reducing unnecessary carcinogenic risks from this source requires the determination of organ and tissue absorbed doses to estimate detrimental stochastic effects. In addition, effective dose can be used to assess comparative risk between exposure situations and facilitate dose reduction through optimisation. Children are at the highest risk from radiation induced carcinogenesis and therefore dosimetry for paediatric CT recipients is essential in addressing the ionising radiation health risks of CT scanning. However, there is no well-defined method in the clinical environment for routinely and reliably performing paediatric CT organ dosimetry and there are numerous methods utilised for estimating paediatric CT effective dose. Therefore, in this study, eleven computational methods for organ dosimetry and/or effective dose calculation were investigated and compared with absorbed doses measured using thermoluminescent dosemeters placed in a physical anthropomorphic phantom representing a 10 year old child. Three common clinical paediatric CT protocols including brain, chest and abdomen/pelvis examinations were evaluated. Overall, computed absorbed doses to organs and tissues fully and directly irradiated demonstrated better agreement (within approximately 50 %) with the measured absorbed doses than absorbed doses to distributed organs or to those located on the periphery of the scan volume, which showed up to a 15-fold dose variation. The disparities predominantly arose from differences in the phantoms used. While the ability to estimate CT dose is essential for risk assessment and radiation protection, identifying a simple, practical dosimetry method remains challenging.     

PET/CT质量性能检测的探讨

目的：探讨PET/CT的应用质量和性能检测方法。方法：用放射性核素18F检测PET的空间分辨率、灵敏度、散射因子与计数丢失、图像质量,用美国Catphan-424性能体模和瑞典Barracuda长杆电离室和射线测量仪检测CT的剂量指数、定位光精度、层厚、空间分辨率、密度分辨率、场均匀性和噪声、CT值线性和对比度标度、检查床运动精度。结果：PET/CT作为整机合格,但部分参数不合格。结论：通过检测可有效保证系统的质量和安全。     

Characterization of a commercially-available, optically-stimulated luminescent dosimetry system for use in computed tomography

Optically-stimulated luminescent (OSL) nanoDot dosimeters, commercially available from Landauer, Inc. (Glenwood, IL), were assessed for use in computed tomography (CT) for erasure and reusability, linearity and reproducibility of response, and angular and energy response in different scattering conditions. Following overnight exposure to fluorescent room light, the residual signal on the dosimeters was 2%. The response of the dosimeters to identical exposures was consistent, and reported doses were within 4% of each other. The dosimeters responded linearly with dose up to 1 Gy. The dosimeter response to the CT beams decreased with increased tube voltage, showing up to a -16% difference when compared to a 0.6-cm(3) NIST-traceable calibrated ionization chamber for a 135 kVp CT beam. The largest range in percent difference in dosimeter response to scatter at central and peripheral positions inside CTDI phantoms was 14% at 80 kVp CT tube voltage, when compared to the ionization chamber. The dosimeters responded uniformly to x-ray tube angle over the ranges of increments of 0° to 75° and 105° to 180° when exposed in air, and from 0° to 360° when exposed inside a CTDI phantom. While energy and scatter correction factors should be applied to dosimeter readings for the purpose of determining absolute doses, these corrections are straightforward but depend on the accuracy of the ionization chamber used for cross-calibration. The linearity and angular responses, combined with the ability to reuse the dosimeters, make this OSL system an excellent choice for clinical CT dose measurements.     

宝石CT能谱成像原理及其扫描射线剂量

目前CT已成为疾病诊断的一种重要手段。与常规CT相比,能谱CT最显著的特征就是提供了多种定量分析工具与多参数成像为基础的综合诊断模式,如基物质图像、单能量图像、能谱曲线等。其独特的多参数成像模式给长期习惯于单一诊断模式的影像科医生提出了前所未有的挑战,熟悉其成像原理、影像表现与应用价值是非常必要的。本文首先回顾了能量CT研发的必要性及其实现途径;随后深入剖析了单源瞬时kVp切换能谱成像的物理基础,并介绍了实现该技术所必需的解析技术;接着从基础实验的角度,展现了能谱成像能够在更低剂量条件下保证同常规CT一致的图像质量。     

低剂量CT影像引导下肺部肿瘤微创治疗的研究

目的探讨低剂量CT影像引导下肺部肿瘤微创治疗的可行性。方法采用随机对照试验设计,将符合纳入标准的160例肺部肿瘤的患者随机分配到对照组与试验组,分别使用不同辐射剂量的CT影像引导下微创治疗肺部肿瘤;记录不同剂量CT引导下肿瘤影像学特性、肿块大小、微创治疗肺部肿瘤的术中并发症(出血、气胸)影像学表现、CT剂量加权指数(CTDIvol)、扫描层数、剂量长度乘积Dose-Length Product(DLP)以及近期疗效等参数进行定量测量与差异性评价。结果表明试验组在降低毫安值,减少辐射剂量的同时,会产生一定噪声与伪影使到图像质量下降;但是两组CT影像引导下微创治疗肺部肿瘤过程的图像质量评价差异无统计学意义,显示试验组能达到对照组临床CT影像引导下肺部肿瘤微创治疗的要求。在扫描管电流剂量降低至15mA引导扫描时候,CT剂量加权指数(CTDIvol)从常规的17.95 mGy降低至2.26 mGy,降低幅度达87.41%。对照组CT下引导肺部肿瘤扫描的剂量长度乘积(DLP)远远大于试验组,试验组DLP值仅为对照组的35%。结论低剂量CT影像引导下肺部肿瘤微创治疗的方法,大大减低了患者辐射剂量,并可确保微创手术顺利实施的整个过程,本研究最低选用管电流15 mA CT引导技术值得同行借鉴与推广。     

Comparison of the CT scatter fractions provided in NCRP Report No. 147 to scanner-specific scatter fractions and the consequences for calculated barrier thickness

The new NCRP Report No. 147 includes methodology to determine x-ray protective shielding for CT scanner rooms. This methodology assumes fixed values of the scatter fraction per centimeter (kappa) for the peripheral axis of the head and body CT phantoms. An investigation was performed to determine kappa for different makes and models of CT scanner and examine the consequences of the differences between these and the fixed NCRP values on a typical shielding calculation. kappa values were calculated using an equation for the scattered air kerma at 1 m from NCRP 147 (Kerma(scatter) = kappa x ScanLength x CTDI(100) x pitch(-1)) and using scattered air kerma data provided by the manufacturers and measured CTDI(100) (periphery) values. Typical barrier calculations, following NCRP 147 methodology, were performed for each CT scanner using the fixed kappa values and, separately, using the calculated scanner-specific values. Ten CT scanner models from three manufacturers were investigated. The calculated scanner-specific kappa values varied from the NCRP fixed values by as much as 82%. However, when these kappa values were used in typical barrier calculations, the final shielding requirements using the NCRP fixed values were 0.5 to 13% less than those using the scanner specific values. It is likely that such small underestimates in the shielding requirement due to using the NCRP fixed kappa values would be more than compensated by the conservative assumptions that are incorporated in a typical barrier calculation.     

Radiation dose reduction with dictionary learning based processing for head CT

In CT, ionizing radiation exposure from the scan has attracted much concern from patients and doctors. This work is aimed at improving head CT images from low-dose scans by using a fast Dictionary learning (DL) based post-processing. Both Low-dose CT (LDCT) and Standard-dose CT (SDCT) nonenhanced head images were acquired in head examination from a multi-detector row Siemens Somatom Sensation 16 CT scanner. One hundred patients were involved in the experiments. Two groups of LDCT images were acquired with 50 % (LDCT50 %) and 25 % (LDCT25 %) tube current setting in SDCT. To give quantitative evaluation, Signal to noise ratio (SNR) and Contrast to noise ratio (CNR) were computed from the Hounsfield unit (HU) measurements of GM, WM and CSF tissues. A blinded qualitative analysis was also performed to assess the processed LDCT datasets. Fifty and seventy five percent dose reductions are obtained for the two LDCT groups (LDCT50 %, 1.15 ± 0.1 mSv; LDCT25 %, 0.58 ± 0.1 mSv; SDCT, 2.32 ± 0.1 mSv; P < 0.001). Significant SNR increase over the original LDCT images is observed in the processed LDCT images for all the GM, WM and CSF tissues. Significant GM–WM CNR enhancement is noted in the DL processed LDCT images. Higher SNR and CNR than the reference SDCT images can even be achieved in the processed LDCT50 % and LDCT25 % images. Blinded qualitative review validates the perceptual improvements brought by the proposed approach. Compared to the original LDCT images, the application of DL processing in head CT is associated with a significant improvement of image quality.