Superficial or deep cervical plexus block for carotid endarterectomy: a systematic review of complications

Carotid endarterectomy is commonly conducted under regional(deep, superficial, intermediate, or combined) cervical plexusblock, but it is not known if complication rates differ. Weconducted a systematic review of published papers to assessthe complication rate associated with superficial (or intermediate)and deep (or combined deep plus superficial/intermediate). Thenull hypothesis was that complication rates were equal. Complicationsof interest were: (1) serious complications related to the placementof block, (2) incidence of conversion to general anaesthesia,and (3) serious systemic complications of the surgical-anaestheticprocess. We retrieved 69 papers describing a total of 7558 deep/combinedblocks and 2533 superficial/intermediate blocks. Deep/combinedblock was associated with a higher serious complication raterelated to the injecting needle when compared with the superficial/intermediateblock (odds ratio 2.13, P = 0.006). The conversion rate to generalanaesthesia was also higher with deep/combined block (odds ratio5.15, P < 0.0001), but there was an equivalent incidenceof other systemic serious complications (odds ratio 1.13, P= 0.273; NS). We conclude that superficial/intermediate blockis safer than any method that employs a deep injection. Thehigher rate of conversion to general anaesthesia with the deep/combinedblock may have been influenced by the higher incidence of directcomplications, but may also suggest that the superficial/combinedblock provides better analgesia during surgery.     

超声引导下颈浅丛或颈中间丛神经阻滞联合肌间沟臂丛神经阻滞在锁骨骨折手术中的比较

目的 比较超声引导下颈浅丛联合肌间沟臂丛神经阻滞与颈中间丛联合肌间沟臂丛神经阻滞在锁骨骨折内固定术中的应用效果。
方法 选择择期拟行单侧锁骨骨折内固定术的患者60例,男36例,女24例,年龄18～64岁,BMI≤30 kg/m²,ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级。采用随机数字表法分为两组：颈浅丛神经阻滞组（S组）和颈中间丛神经阻滞组（M组）,每组30例。两组均先行超声引导下肌间沟臂丛神经阻滞,给予患侧0.4%罗哌卡因15 ml,S组行超声引导下颈浅丛神经阻滞,给予患侧0.4%罗哌卡因10 ml;M组行超声引导下颈中间丛阻滞,给予患侧0.4%罗哌卡因10 ml。记录颈浅丛和颈中间丛神经阻滞操作时间、麻醉起效时间。记录神经阻滞效果满意例数。记录术后1、2、4、6、12、24 h的VAS疼痛评分。记录局麻药物中毒、声音嘶哑、术后恶心呕吐等不良反应的发生情况。
结果 M组阻滞操作时间和麻醉起效时间明显短于S组（P<0.05）。两组神经阻滞效果满意率均为100%。M组术后1、2、4、6 h的VAS疼痛评分明显低于S组（P<0.05）。两组均无局麻药物中毒、声音嘶哑等不良反应发生,两组术后恶心呕吐发生率差异无统计学意义。
结论 超声引导下颈浅丛联合肌间沟臂丛神经阻滞与颈中间丛联合肌间沟臂丛神经阻滞均可为锁骨骨折内固定术提供安全有效的麻醉效果,但颈中间丛阻滞操作时间及起效时间更短、术后早期镇痛效果更优。     

Spread of injectate with superficial cervical plexus block in humans: an anatomical study

Background. This study was undertaken to investigate why thesuperficial cervical plexus block for carotid endarterectomyis so effective. Initial consideration would suggest that asuperficial injection would be unlikely to block all terminalfibres of relevant nerves. One possibility is that the localanaesthetic crosses the deep cervical fascia and blocks thecervical nerves at their roots. Methods. Superficial cervical plexus blocks (injections justbelow the investing fascia) were performed using methylene blue(30 ml) in four cadavers. In one additional control cadaver,a deep cervical plexus injection was performed. In a secondcontrol cadaver, a subcutaneous injection (superficial to investingfascia) was performed at the posterior border of the sternomastoidmuscle. Results. Anatomical dissection showed that with superficialblock there was spread of the dye to structures beneath thedeep cervical fascia. In the first control, dye remained inthe deep cervical space. In the second control, dye remainedsubcutaneous. Conclusions. The superficial cervical space communicates withthe deep cervical space and this may explain the efficacy ofthe superficial block. The method of communication remains unknown.Our findings also indicate that the suitable site of injectionfor the superficial cervical plexus block is below the investingfascia of the neck, and not just subcutaneous. Br J Anaesth 2003; 91: 733–5     

Analgesic efficacy of bilateral superficial cervical plexus block for thyroid surgery: meta-analysis and systematic review

Background

Thyroid surgery is moderately painful, but is increasingly being considered as a day-case procedure. Bilateral superficial cervical plexus block (BSCPB) provides an adjuvant technique to facilitate this approach, but there is great evidential heterogeneity in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) about its use.

Efficacy of unilateral combined (superficial and deep) cervical plexus block as a preemptive analgesia for unilateral neck dissection surgery

ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were designed to evaluate the intra- and postoperative analgesic efficacy of unilateral superficial and deep cervical plexus block for unilateral neck dissection surgery.Patients and methodsTwenty eight patients were randomly assigned into two groups to receive either saline (control group) or bupivacaine (study group), hemodynamic monitoring. Bispectral index (BIS) monitor and MAC of isoflurane were recorded. Postoperative visual analogue score were recorded, operative time and postoperative first time to take analgesic were recorded.ResultsCompared to the control group, patients received bupivacaine for unilateral superficial and deep cervical plexus block showed lower intraoperative isoflurane concentration and bispectral index, decreased postoperative visual analogue score, longer duration of analgesia, decreased plasma cortisol level. No patients developed adverse effects.ConclusionUnilateral combined superficial and deep cervical plexus block is an effective technique to reduce intraoperative anesthetics and reduce postoperative analgesic requirements in patients undergoing unilateral block neck dissection surgery without any adverse effects.     

Remifentanil or propofol for sedation during carotid endarterectomy under cervical plexus block

Background. During carotid endarterectomy under regional anaesthesia,patients often require medication to control haemodynamic instabilityand to provide sedation and analgesia. Propofol and remifentanilare used for this purpose. However, the benefits, side-effects,and optimal dose of these drugs in such patients are unclear. Methods. Sixty patients were included in a prospective, randomized,single blinded study. All patients received a deep cervicalplexus block with 30 ml ropivacaine 0.75% and were randomizedto receive either remifentanil 3 µg kg^–1 h^–1or propofol 1 mg kg^–1 h^–1. The infusions were startedafter performing the regional block and were stopped at theend of surgery. Arterial pressure, ECG, ventilatory rate, andPa_CO2 were measured continuously and recorded at predeterminedtimes. Twenty-four hours after surgery, patient comfort, andsatisfaction were also evaluated. Results. In three patients, the infusion of remifentanil hadto be stopped because of severe respiratory depression or bradycardia.No significant differences were found between the two groupsin haemodynamic variables or sedative effects, but there wasa significantly greater decrease in ventilatory frequency andincrease in Pa_CO2 in the remifentanil group. The patient’ssubjective impressions and pain control were excellent in bothgroups. Conclusion. As a result of the higher incidence of adverse respiratoryeffects with remifentanil and similar sedative effects, propofolis preferable for sedation during cervical plexus block in elderlypatients with comorbid disease at the dosage used. Br J Anaesth 2002; 89: 637–40     

Plasma bupivacaine concentrations and effects of epinephrine after superficial cervical plexus blockade in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy

OBJECTIVE: To determine if epinephrine (EPI) added to a solution of bupivacaine (BUP) injected for use in superficial cervical plexus blockade (SCPB) lowers plasma BUP concentrations after injection and whether this addition of EPI resulted in tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias, or both. DESIGN: Randomized, unblinded prospective clinical interventional study. PARTICIPANTS: Patients scheduled to undergo carotid endarterectomy using SCPB consenting to study. SETTING: University-affiliated tertiary care hospital operating room. INTERVENTIONS: Twenty patients were given SCPB with BUP 0.5% and were randomized to receive either no EPI or 1:300,000 EPI. This study block was followed by a second period in which 20 patients were given SCPB with BUP 0.25% randomized to receive either no EPI or 1:300,000 EPI. Continuous electrocardiogram monitoring was performed during and after the block and analyzed for heart rate and rhythm changes. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Arterial plasma BUP concentrations were measured 2.5 to 120 minutes after initiation of SCPB. Plasma BUP concentrations were highest in the 0.5% no EPI group, followed by the 0.5% EPI, 0.25% no EPI, and 0.25% EPI groups. The use of EPI did not significantly affect heart rate or change the incidence of cardiac arrhythmias. CONCLUSIONS: BUP 0.25% consistently produced the lowest plasma BUP concentrations, particularly when EPI was added to the solution. BUP 0.5% without EPI can produce plasma BUP concentrations previously reported to be associated with central nervous system effects. The use of EPI in this setting does not produce untoward cardiac side effects.     

Are neurologic events occurring during carotid artery surgery predictive of postoperative neurologic complications?

Background. Per- and postoperative neurologic complications occurring during carotid artery surgery may be related to different mechanisms. Nevertheless, recent studies suggest that they are related and that patients who develop reversible neurologic events peroperatively are at risk of postoperative neurologic complications. We, therefore, studied 265 patients operated under regional anaesthesia to assess the incidence and the pathogenesis of per- and postoperative neurologic disorders and their relationship.
Method. Neurologic function was adequately assessed in 261 patients during surgery. The operation was uneventful in 234 patients, while 27 suffered from transient ischaemic neurologic deficit occurring mainly during carotid artery clamping.
Results. Postoperative neurologic complications occurred in 6 (2.5%) of the patients who were symptom-free during surgery and in 1 (3.7%) of the patients who experienced neurologic deficit during surgery (NS). In this group, two additional patients had peroperative neurologic deficit which lasted a few hours postoperatively so that the total incidence of postoperative neurologic deficit (11.1%) was significantly higher than in the other group ( P < 0.05). Emboli (N=3) and carotid artery thrombosis (N=3) were the main causes of postoperative neurologic deficit.
Conclusion. We conclude that patients who have suffered from a peroperative neurologic complication were more frequently in an unstable neurologic condition postoperatively. However, the incidence of "new" neurologic deficit, separated by a free interval from the one occurring peroperatively, was not significantly different in this group.     

全麻和颈丛阻滞行颈动脉内膜剥脱术的对比研究

目的比较全麻和颈丛阻滞行颈动脉内膜剥脱术(CEA)围术期血液动力学变化和并发症情况.方法64例颈动脉内膜剥脱术分别在全麻和颈丛阻滞下完成,每组32例.记录并计算两组围术期血液动力学参数的波动性,分流管使用率、心脑并发症,询问患者的满意程度和选择倾向.结果CEA全麻围术期的血液动力学波动性明显大于颈丛阻滞(P＜0.01),高血压和低血压的发生率也高于颈丛阻滞(P＜0.05);全麻分流管的使用率高于颈丛阻滞(P＜0.05),围术期心肌缺血的发生率也高于颈丛阻滞(P＜0.05),两组神经系统并发症无显著差异.患者对两种麻醉方法的满意程度无显著差异,倾向于选择已使用过的麻醉方法.结论全身麻醉和颈丛阻滞都可安全用于颈动脉内膜剥脱术,颈丛阻滞有利于维护围术期血液动力学的稳定,减少分流管的使用和心血管并发症.     

相同浓度罗比卡因与布比卡因用于颈神经丛阻滞的比较

目的评价相同浓度罗比卡因与布比卡因用于颈神经丛阻滞的麻醉效果.方法49例ASAⅠ～Ⅱ级甲状腺肿物切除患者随机分为两组,罗比卡因组(Ⅰ组)31例,布比卡因组(Ⅱ组)18例,分别用0.375%罗比卡因和0.375%布比卡因10 ml阻滞颈浅丛神经,用0.25%罗比卡因和0.25%布比卡因10 ml阻滞其深丛.记录麻醉效果及所产生的并发症,记录麻醉前(T0)、麻醉后即刻(T1)、麻醉后的5 min(T2)、10 min(T3)、15 min(T4)、30 min(T5)及手术结束(T6)时的HR、SBP、DBP、MAP、SpO2、RR、Mv、VT.结果两组麻醉效果相同,产生的并发症也无显著性差异(P＞0.05).罗比卡因对抬头肌力的影响显著弱于布比卡因(P＜0.01).两组HR麻醉后均有显著升高(P＜0.05),SBP、DBP、MAP在T1～T5时有显著升高(P＜0.05),在T6时与T0相比无显著性差异(P＞0.05).与T0比较,两组SpO2、RR、Mv和VT在各时间点上无显著性差异(P＞0.05).结论0.375%罗比卡因和0.375%布比卡因用于颈浅丛神经阻滞,0.25%罗比卡因和0.25%布比卡因用于颈深丛阻滞均产生较好的麻醉效果.罗比卡因由于运动神经阻滞较弱,更适于颈神经丛阻滞.     

超声引导下颈5与颈6神经根阻滞联合颈浅丛阻滞在锁骨骨折手术中的应用效果

目的比较超声引导下C_5与C_6神经根阻滞(NRB)联合颈浅丛阻滞(SCPB)在锁骨骨折手术中的应用效果。方法择期行单侧锁骨骨折手术患者60例,男40例,女20例,年龄18～75岁,BMI≤35 kg/m~2,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级。采用随机数字表法分为两组,每组30例:C_5-NRB复合SCPB组(C5组)和C_6-NRB复合SCPB组(C6组)。颈神经根阻滞(CNRB)和SCPB均在超声引导下进行,在每一目标神经区域注射0.5%罗哌卡因5 ml。术中VAS疼痛评分≥4分时,静脉注射芬太尼0.5μg/kg。记录阻滞后30 min针刺疼痛评分。记录术中芬太尼和丙泊酚用量。记录术后4、12、24 h VAS疼痛评分和术后首次口服镇痛药物时间。采用改良Bromage(MBS)评分评估阻滞后30 min及术后4、12 h患侧上肢运动功能。记录局麻药中毒、星状神经节阻滞、喉返神经阻滞、膈神经阻滞等并发症的发生情况。结果两组阻滞后30 min患侧锁骨皮肤针刺疼痛评分以及术中芬太尼、丙泊酚用量差异无统计学意义。两组术后4、12、24 h VAS疼痛评分和术后首次口服镇痛药时间差异无统计学意义。两组阻滞后30 min及术后4、12 h患侧上肢屈肘、屈腕、屈指MBS评分差异无统计学意义。两组均无一例局麻药中毒、喉返神经阻滞发生。C6组1例阻滞后出现星状神经节阻滞,C5组有2例M型超声检查显示膈肌部分麻痹。结论超声引导下C_5或C_6-NRB联合SCPB下均可为锁骨骨折患者提供良好的手术麻醉,并可很好地保留患侧上肢的运动功能,且膈神经阻滞等并发症少。     

颈丛麻醉复合舒芬太尼在甲状腺手术中的应用

目的对比单纯颈丛阻滞麻醉和双侧颈丛阻滞复合舒芬太尼两种麻醉方式在甲状腺手术中的效果。方法甲状腺手术患者130例,将其随机分为观察组和对照组各65例,对照组仅采用双侧颈丛阻滞麻醉,观察组在对照组麻醉的基础上静脉注射舒芬太尼0．1μg/kg。观察麻醉满意度,分别记录阻滞前和阻滞后的收缩压（SBP）、舒张压（DBP）、心率（HR）、血氧饱和度（SpO2）的变化。结果两组患者麻醉前SBP、DBP、HR以及SpO,差异均无统计学意义（P〉0．05）;麻醉后两组SBP、DBP、HR相比差异均有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;麻醉前、后SpO2的变化两组间差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）;麻醉效果上两组差异有统计学意义（P〈0。05）;术中并发症声音嘶哑及呼吸困难的出现率两组间比较,观察组明显低于对照组（P〈0．05）。结论颈丛麻醉复合舒芬太尼用于甲状腺疾病手术,患者满意度高,且不良反应轻微,值得临床推广应用。     

Acute respiratory failure after deep cervical plexus block for carotid endarterectomy as a result of bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis

We report about a case of acute respiratory distress (73-year-old female), which occurred minutes after a deep cervical plexus block (40 ml ropivacaine 0.5%) for carotid endarterectomy (CEA) and required immediate endotracheal intubation of the patient's trachea and consecutive mechanical ventilation. Subsequently, CEA was performed under general anaesthesia (TIVA) with continuous monitoring by somatosensory-evoked potentials. After a period of 14 hours, the endotracheal tube could be removed, the patient being in fair respiratory, cardiocirculatory and neurological conditions. Retrospectively, acute respiratory distress was caused by a combination of ipsilateral plexus blockade-induced and pre-existing asymptomatic contralateral recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) paralysis confirmed by a postoperative ENT-check and related to previous thyroid surgery more than 50 years ago. RLN paralysis, often being asymptomatic, represents a typical complication of thyroid and other neck surgery with reported incidences of 0.5-3%. Therefore, a thorough preoperative airway check is advisable in all patients scheduled for a cervical plexus block. Particularly in cases with a history of respiratory disorders or previous neck surgery a vocal cord examination is recommended, and the use of a superficial cervical plexus block may lower the risk of respiratory complications. This may prevent a possibly life-threatening coincidence of ipsilateral plexus blockade-induced and pre-existing asymptomatic contralateral RLN paralysis.     

Increased oxygen administration during awake carotid surgery can reverse neurological deficit following carotid cross-clamping

We describe the management of two patients undergoing awakecarotid surgery who developed signs of cerebral ischaemia followingcross-clamping of the internal carotid artery. Administrationof oxygen 100% with a close-fitting anaesthetic facemask reversedthe neurological deficit, avoiding the need for insertion ofan internal carotid artery shunt. Thus, the incidence of shuntinsertion, which is reduced by the use of regional rather thangeneral anaesthesia, could be reduced further by supplementaryoxygenation. The possible mechanism and implications are discussed.     

颈横动脉对臂丛神经影响的应用解剖

目的探索臂丛的周围血管——颈横动脉是否对臂丛神经造成卡压以及解决的方法。方法选用陈旧性成人尸体31具62侧,在胸廓出口部位进行颈横动脉的应用解剖学研究,重点是它与臂丛神经的关系。结果13侧未见颈横浅动脉,49侧中出现51条颈横浅动脉,其中11条与臂丛神经有紧密接触,占21.15%。16侧未见颈横深动脉,46侧有52条颈横深动脉（肩胛背动脉）,其中31条与臂丛神经密切接触,9条在臂丛神经上留下明显压迹,占17.31%。结论颈横动脉,尤其是颈横深动脉（肩胛背动脉）可以形成对臂丛神经的卡压,是又一个可能导致胸廓出口综合征的原因之一。     

Tramadol does not prolong the effect of ropivacaine 7.5 mg/ml for axillary brachial plexus block

BACKGROUND: The aim of this prospective, randomized, double-blind study was to evaluate the effect of the addition of tramadol to ropivacaine on the onset and duration of sensory and motor block, and duration of analgesia, for axillary brachial plexus block. METHODS: After institutional approval and informed consent had been obtained, 45 patients scheduled for forearm or hand surgery under axillary brachial plexus block were randomly allocated into two groups. The ropivacaine group received 40 ml of ropivacaine 7.5 mg/ml plus 2 ml of isotonic sodium chloride solution, and the tramadol group received 40 ml of ropivacaine 7.5 mg/ml plus 2 ml (100 mg) of tramadol. The onset and duration of sensory and motor block in the distribution of the musculocutaneous, radial, median and ulnar nerves, the duration of analgesia, the time to first pain medication, hemodynamics and side-effects were recorded. RESULTS: The addition of tramadol did not improve the speed of onset or increase the duration of sensory and motor block. The durations of analgesia were 631 +/- 33 min and 633 +/- 37 min (mean +/- standard deviation) in the ropivacaine and tramadol groups, respectively (P > 0.05). Hemodynamic parameters and side-effects did not differ between the groups. CONCLUSION: The addition of 100 mg of tramadol to 7.5 mg/ml of ropivacaine, for axillary brachial plexus block, does not prolong the duration of motor and sensory block and analgesia.     

Blood pressure manipulation during awake carotid surgery to reverse neurological deficit after carotid cross-clamping

We describe the management of three patients undergoing awakecarotid surgery who developed signs of cerebral ischaemia aftercarotid cross-clamping. Drug treatment to increase arterialblood pressure above baseline reversed the neurological deficitand an internal carotid artery shunt was not needed. Shunt insertionis less frequent with regional rather than general anaesthesia,and blood pressure control can reduce this even more. Coincidentally,one of the patients, who gave a history of angina of effortafter walking 100 m, complained of chest pain after cross-clamprelease. This was treated successfully with sublingual nitroglycerinbefore ST segment changes became apparent on the ECG. Thesereports suggest that regional anaesthesia for carotid surgeryallows potential complications to be identified earlier thanunder general anaesthesia using reports from the patient, sothat treatment may be modified to prevent morbidity and evenmortality. Br J Anaesth 2001; 87: 641–4     

超声引导下颈浅丛神经阻滞对颈椎前路减压融合术患者术后早期康复质量的影响

目的评价超声引导下颈浅丛神经阻滞对颈椎前路减压融合术患者术后早期康复质量的影响。方法择期行颈前路手术的颈椎病患者60例,男37例,女23例,年龄18~70岁,BMI 18.5~29.5 kg/m^2,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,采用随机数字表法分为两组:颈浅丛神经阻滞联合全麻组(S组)和全麻组(C组),每组30例。S组在全麻诱导前实施超声引导下右侧颈浅丛神经阻滞,注入0.375%罗哌卡因15 ml;C组不行神经阻滞。两组均静脉注射依托咪酯0.3 mg/kg、舒芬太尼0.4μg/kg、罗库溴铵0.6 mg/kg进行麻醉诱导,麻醉维持采用静-吸复合麻醉,术中维持BIS值40~60。分别于术前1 d、术后1 d采用QoR-40量表对患者进行评分。记录术中瑞芬太尼和丙泊酚用量、拔管时间、术后住院时间、术后补救镇痛情况,术后恶心呕吐、咽喉痛、吞咽困难、声音嘶哑等不良反应及神经阻滞相关并发症的发生情况。结果与C组比较,S组术后1 d的QoR-40总评分及身体舒适度、情绪状态、心理支持、疼痛评分明显提高(P<0.05),术中瑞芬太尼用量明显减少(P<0.05),术后补救镇痛率、术后恶心呕吐和吞咽困难发生率明显降低(P<0.05)。两组丙泊酚用量、拔管时间、术后住院时间、术后咽喉痛和声音嘶哑发生率差异无统计学意义。S组未出现神经阻滞相关并发症。结论超声引导下颈浅丛神经阻滞用于颈椎前路减压融合术,有利于提高患者早期康复质量。