Sarcopenia: etiology, clinical consequences, intervention, and assessment

The aging process is associated with loss of muscle mass and strength and decline in physical functioning. The term sarcopenia is primarily defined as low level of muscle mass resulting from age-related muscle loss, but its definition is often broadened to include the underlying cellular processes involved in skeletal muscle loss as well as their clinical manifestations. The underlying cellular changes involve weakening of factors promoting muscle anabolism and increased expression of inflammatory factors and other agents which contribute to skeletal muscle catabolism. At the cellular level, these molecular processes are manifested in a loss of muscle fiber cross-sectional area, loss of innervation, and adaptive changes in the proportions of slow and fast motor units in muscle tissue. Ultimately, these alterations translate to bulk changes in muscle mass, strength, and function which lead to reduced physical performance, disability, increased risk of fall-related injury, and, often, frailty. In this review, we summarize current understanding of the mechanisms underlying sarcopenia and age-related changes in muscle tissue morphology and function. We also discuss the resulting long-term outcomes in terms of loss of function, which causes increased risk of musculoskeletal injuries and other morbidities, leading to frailty and loss of independence.     

肌肉减少症病因学研究现状与展望

肌肉减少症是一种与年龄有关的肌肉力量下降和躯体功能受限的老年综合征,老年人出现跌倒、身体残疾、住院和早逝等不良后果风险增加。人均寿命延长导致老龄化,肌肉减少症的发病率和患病率明显升高。2016年国际卫生组织将其纳入《国际疾病分类第十次修订版:临床修改》(ICD-10-CM),疾病编码为M62.84。目前肌肉减少症最常用的定义是欧洲老年人肌肉减少症工作组(EWGSOP)提出的,表示与增龄相关的进行性的全身肌肉量减少、肌肉强度下降或肌肉生理功能减退,2019年EWGSOP更新肌肉减少症定义。肌肉减少症被认为是晚年负面健康结果的相关决定因素,肌肉力量和活动能力的丧失导致躯体平衡障碍,老年人发生跌倒和骨折的比率升高,增加社会残疾率及医疗负担,明确病因十分重要。近年来国内外学者研究发现肌肉减少症与运动因素、内分泌因素、慢性炎症、营养状况、肠道菌群、遗传因素及社会心理素等相关,但具体病因尚不明确。本文通过查阅大量有关文献,对肌肉减少症病因学研究现状与进展作一综述。     

Sarcopenia in critically ill patients

Sarcopenia occurring as a primary consequence of aging and secondary due to certain medical problems including chronic disease, malnutrition and inactivity is a progressive generalized loss of skeletal muscle mass, strength and function. The prevalence of sarcopenia increases with aging (approximately 5–13 % in the sixth and seventh decades). However, data showing the prevalence and clinical outcomes of sarcopenia in intensive care units (ICUs) are limited. A similar condition to sarcopenia in the ICU, called ICU-acquired weakness (ICU-AW), has been reported more frequently. Here, we aim to examine the importance of sarcopenia, especially ICU-AW, in ICU patients via related articles in Medline.     

肌少症造模方法的研究进展

肌少症以肌肉质量减少、力量减退、功能下降为主要表现，可增加跌倒和骨折风险，是老年人的常见病和多发病。随着人口老龄化程度的不断加剧，肌少症所带来的问题逐渐突显。明确本病的发病机制至关重要，现有的肌少症造模方案各有利弊，造模时间短、成本低、与人类肌少症病理改变高度一致的动物模型是研究的关键步骤。故查阅近年来国内外文献，总结并探讨肌少症造模方法的研究进展，以期为肌少症的研究提供参考。     

Sarcopenia in urologic oncology: Identification and strategies to improve patient outcomes

Sarcopenia is the loss of muscle mass and function related to aging, undereating, disease conditions, or inactivity. Pre-existing sarcopenia diminishes the functional reserve of patients with cancer which increases their risk for frailty, cancer cachexia, and worse outcomes from treatments. The pathogenesis of sarcopenia is multi-factorial: opening opportunities for clinicians to work across disciplines to improve patient outcomes and quality of life. The purpose of this essay is to describe sarcopenia, discuss clinical screening and assessment for sarcopenia, and highlight potential interventions to manage sarcopenia in the urologic oncology population.     

Exercise therapy for sarcopenia and diabetes

Aging is characterized by the gradual deterioration of function at the molecular, cellular, tissue, and organism levels in humans. The typical diseases caused by changes in body composition, as well as functional decline in the human body’s organs due to aging include sarcopenia and metabolic disorders. The accumulation of dysfunctional aging β cells with age can cause decreased glucose tolerance and diabetes. Muscle decline has a multifactorial origin, involving lifestyle habits, disease triggers, and age-dependent biological changes. The reduced function of β cells in elderly people lowers insulin sensitivity, which affects protein synthesis and interferes with muscle synthesis. The functional decrease and aggravation of disease in elderly people with less regular exercise or physical activity causes imbalances in food intake and a continuous, vicious cycle. In contrast, resistance exercise increases the function of β cells and protein synthesis in elderly people. In this review, we discuss regular physical activities or exercises to prevent and improve health, which is sarcopenia as decreased muscle mass and metabolic disorders as diabetes in the elderly.     

Developing Consensus Criteria for Sarcopenia: An Update

Sarcopenia, the age‐related loss of muscle mass and strength, is a major cause of impaired physical function, which contributes to mobility disability, falls and hospitalizations in older adults. Lower muscle mass and strength are also associated with lower bone mineral density and greater risk for osteoporotic fractures. Thus, identification of sarcopenia could be important for fracture prevention as it may help improve fracture risk assessment, and muscle mass and strength can be improved with exercise, even among the frailest older adults. Unfortunately, there are no consensus diagnostic criteria for sarcopenia. Consequently there is no guidance to help clinicians identify older adults with clinically meaningful low muscle mass or weakness. Further, development of novel sarcopenia therapies is hindered not only due to the difficulty in identifying participants for clinical trials, and but also because there are no validated, clinically appropriate endpoints for assessment of treatment efficacy. There is currently a major push to establish a consensus definition of sarcopenia, and recent work holds promise that this goal may be within reach. This article discusses the evolution of the definition of sarcopenia, and focuses on the latest recommended diagnostic criteria proposed by the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (FNIH) Sarcopenia Project. While these empirically‐based cut‐points for clinically important low muscle mass and weakness are a significant step forward for the sarcopenia field, important questions remain to be answered before consensus diagnostic criteria can be definitively established. Ongoing work to refine sarcopenia criteria will further advance the field and bring this important contributor to falls, fractures and disability into the mainstream of clinical care and ultimately lead to better quality of life with aging. © 2015 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.     

肌少症的定量测量现状及研究进展

肌少症是一种以骨骼肌质量减少及其功能减退为主要临床表现的复杂的老年综合征。在全球其发病率逐年增高,目前已成为威胁老年人健康,影响老年人生活质量的重要危险因素。其诊断标准主要由欧洲老年人肌少症工作组、亚洲肌少症工作组、国际肌少症会议工作组提出的,通过骨骼肌质量、肌肉力量和身体活动能力进行诊断。肌少症前期仅有肌肉质量减少,肌少症期包括肌肉质量减少伴随肌肉力量下降或身体活动能力降低,重度肌少症期肌肉质量以及身体活动能力均会降低。早期对骨骼肌进行定量测量成为诊断肌少症的重要手段之一。骨骼肌定量测量方法主要有计算机X线体层摄影、磁共振成像、双能X线吸收法、生物电阻抗测量、超声等方法。计算机体X线层摄影在骨骼肌质量的研究中主要应用是作为金标准来校准其他方法;磁共振成像在肌肉定量测量中发挥着越来越重要的作用;双能X线吸收测定法和生物电阻抗方法是目前公认筛查肌少症的手段,并且有诊断的阈值,然而精确性欠佳;超声有经济、易携带、高效等优点,但其对体成分的检测价值有限。本文探讨了骨骼肌定量测量研究的现状及其进展。     

Role of frailty and sarcopenia in predicting outcomes among patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery

According to the United States census bureau 20% of Americans will be older than 65 years in 2030 and half of them will need an operation- equating to about 36 million older surgical patients. Older adults are prone to complications during gastrointestinal cancer treatment and therefore may need to undergo special pretreatment assessments that incorporate frailty and sarcopenia assessments. A focused, structured literature review on Pub Med and Google Scholar was performed to identify primary research articles, review articles, as well as practice guidelines on frailty and sarcopenia among patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery. The initial search identified 450 articles; after eliminating duplicates, reports that did not include surgical patients, case series, as well as case reports, 42 publications on the impact of frailty and/or sarcopenia on outcome of patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery were included. Frailty is defined as a clinically recognizable state of increased vulnerability to physiologic stressors resulting from aging. Frailty is associated with a decline in physiologic reserve and function across multiple physiologic systems. Sarcopenia is a syndrome characterized by progressive and generalized loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength. Unlike cachexia, which is typically associated with weight loss due to chemotherapy or a general malignancy-related cachexia syndrome, sarcopenia relates to muscle mass rather than simply weight. As such, while weight reflects nutritional status, sarcopenia- the loss of muscle mass- is a more accurate and quantitative global marker of frailty. While chronologic age is an important element in assessing a patient's peri-operative risk, physiologic age is a more important determinant of outcomes. Geriatric assessment tools are important components of the preoperative work-up and can help identify patients who suffer from frailty. Such data are important, as frailty and sarcopenia have repeatedly been demonstrated among the strongest predictors of both short- and longterm outcome following complicated surgical procedures such as esophageal, gastric, colorectal, and hepatopancreatico-biliary resections.     

Sarcopenia and cardiovascular risk indices: Its impact on cardiovascular events and mortality in dialysis patients

Background: Sarcopenia is a common complication in end-stage renal disease. Low muscle strength and muscle mass are risk factors for cardiovascular disease and mortality in patients undergoing dialysis. We studied the relation between sarcopenia and pre-atherosclerotic markers and its effect on cardiovascular events and death in dialysis patients. Methods: We measured muscle strength, muscle mass, carotid intima-media thickness, and pulse wave velocity in 106 patients. Sarcopenia was diagnosed according to the EWGSOP-2 suggestions. Patients with low muscle strength and low muscle mass were considered sarcopenic. The follow-up period for cardiovascular events and mortality was 24 months. Results: The mean age and dialysis duration were 57.4 ± 16.6 and 6.5 ± 4.9 years, respectively. Of all patients, 53 (50%) were male and 70 (66%) were on hemodialysis treatment. Sarcopenia and low muscle strength were seen in 47.1% and 88.7%, respectively. Hemodialysis patients were more likely to be sarcopenic than peritoneal dialysis patients (p = 0.001). Ferritin and Kt/V levels were higher, and body mass index was lower significantly in sarcopenic patients (p < 0.001). There was no significant difference in carotid intima-media thickness and pulse wave velocity measurements between the groups (p = 0.62 and p = 0.68, respectively). There was no statistically significant difference in cardiovascular events and mortality in cases with and without sarcopenia (p = 0.43 and p = 0.17, respectively). Conclusion: There was no association between sarcopenia and pre-atherosclerotic markers, cardiovascular events, and all-cause mortality in dialysis patients. Techniques to detect low muscle strength and muscle mass need standardization, and new specific cut-off levels must be defined for dialysis patients.     

Is sarcopenia a missed factor in the management of patients with metastatic breast cancer?

BackgroundSarcopenia has emerged as an important parameter to predict outcomes and treatment toxicity. However, limited data are available to assess sarcopenia prevalence in metastatic breast cancer and to evaluate its management.MethodsThe SCAN study was a cross-sectional multicenter French study that aimed to estimate sarcopenia prevalence in a real-life sample of metastatic cancer patients. Sarcopenia was identified by low muscle mass (estimated from the skeletal muscle index at the third lumbar, via computed tomography) and low muscle strength (defined by handgrip strength). Three populations were distinguished based on EWGSOP criteria: a sarcopenic group with low muscle mass AND strength, a pre-sarcopenic group with low muscle mass OR strength and a normal group with high muscle mass AND strength.ResultsAmong 766 included patients, 139 patients with breast cancer and median age of 61.2 years (29.9–97.8 years) were evaluable; 29.5% were sarcopenic and 41.0% were pre-sarcopenic. Sarcopenic patients were older (P < 0.01), had a worse PS-score (P < 0.05), and a higher number of metastatic sites (P < 0.01), the majority being hepatic and bone. A moderate agreement between the oncologist's diagnosis and sarcopenia evaluation by muscle mass and strength was recognized (Cohen's kappa = 0.45). No associations were found between sarcopenia and adverse event occurrence in the 12 patients for whom these were reported. Sarcopenic patients were underdiagnosed and nutritional care and physical activity were less proposed.ConclusionIt is necessary to evaluate sarcopenia due to its impact on patient prognosis, and its utility in guiding patient management in metastatic breast cancer.     

肌少症、骨质疏松症的关系及研究进展

随着人均寿命的延长,与肌肉骨骼系统相关疾病的发病率随之增长,国内外学者对肌少症、骨质疏松症的关注度也越来越高。肌少症是指与增龄相关的进行性、全身肌量减少和/或肌强度下降或肌肉生理功能减退。骨质疏松症是以骨量减少、骨组织显微结构退化为特征,以至骨的脆性增高及骨折危险性增加的一种全身性骨病。肌少症、骨质疏松症是危害老年人健康的病理状态,使得老年人的生活质量大打折扣,患有肌少症的人群免疫功能、日常生活能力较常人降低,感染风险、跌倒风险、致残率、死亡风险较常人增加,患有骨质疏松症的人群跌倒风险、骨折风险、致残率也较常人高很多。肌少症与骨质疏松症相互影响、紧密关联的机制比较复杂,包括肌肉收缩力学负荷对骨骼机械力的影响,以及肌肉与骨骼间复杂精密内分泌调控的生物学机制。针对两者之间存在的许多共同危险因素及发病机制,进行运动干预、营养指导、药物治疗,有助于延缓肌少症、骨质疏松症的进展,改善不良预后。本文将结合国内外研究对两者概念、发病机制、临床表现、评估标准、干预及治疗等之间的相关关系及研究进展进行一一综述。     

血清VIP水平与老年人群骨密度及肌肉减少症相关性研究

目的探索血管活性肠肽(vasoactive intestinal peptide,VIP)水平与老年人群骨密度和肌肉减少症相关性。方法受试者包括216名成年人(79名男性和137名女性;平均年龄73.5岁)接受全面体检。检测所有受试者骨骼肌指数(SMI)、腰椎(L1-L4)和股骨颈骨密度和步行速度,符合亚洲肌肉减少症工作组标准的受试者被分配到肌肉减少症组。仅肌肉量减少的受试者被分配到肌量减少组,其他受试者分配到正常组。Oswestry功能障碍指数(ODI)和腰痛视觉模拟评分(VAS)用于评估腰痛。同时检测血清VIP水平;对三组之间肌肉减少症决定因素如骨密度、VAS和VIP等数据进行统计学分析。结果12名受试者(5.5%)患有肌肉减少症。肌肉减少症组的平均ODI评分显著高于肌量减少组和正常组[分别为(25.2±12.3)%、(11.2±10.0)%和(11.9±12.3)%,P<0.05]。肌肉减少症组血清VIP水平显著低于肌量减少组和正常组(P<0.05)。肌肉减少症组的腰椎(L1-L4)和股骨颈骨密度和BMI显著低于其他组(P<0.05)。腰椎(L1-L4)和股骨颈骨密度及步行速度、ODI与血清VIP水平之间存在正相关(P<0.05)。结论老年人群中肌肉减少症及腰椎(L1-L4)和股骨颈骨密度、腰痛与血清VIP水平密切相关。     

Early-stage chronic kidney disease,insulin resistance,and osteoporosis as risk factors of sarcopenia in aged population: The Fourth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV), 2008–2009

Summary

Sarcopenia means the progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength with aging. In this study, we found that insulin resistance, chronic kidney disease stage 3, and osteoporosis at the femur neck were closely associated with sarcopenia in elderly men. These conditions modified to slow down the progression of sarcopenia.

Introduction

Sarcopenia is known to have multiple contributing factors; however, its modifiable risk factors have not yet been determined. The aim of this study was to identify the most influential and modifiable risk factors for sarcopenia in elderly.

Methods

This was a population-based, cross-sectional study using data from the Fourth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV), 2008–2009. This study included 940 men and 1,324 women aged 65 years and older who completed a body composition analysis using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Sarcopenia was defined as an appendicular skeletal muscle mass divided by height² of less than 1 standard deviation below the sex-specific mean for a younger reference group.

Results

Using univariate analysis, age, body mass index (BMI), homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), limitations in daily activities, regular exercise, high-risk drinking, family income, osteoporosis, daily energy, and protein intake were associated with sarcopenia in men; age, BMI, limitations in daily activities, regular exercise, occupation, osteoporosis at the total hip, and daily energy intake were associated with sarcopenia in women. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, HOMA-IR ≥2.5 (odds ratio [OR] for sarcopenia, 2.27; 95 % confidence interval [CI], 1.21–4.25), chronic kidney disease stage 3 (OR, 3.13; 95 % CI, 1.14–8.61), and osteoporosis at the femur neck (OR, 6.83; 95 % CI, 1.08–43.41) were identified as risk factors for sarcopenia in men.

Conclusions

Insulin resistance, chronic kidney disease, and osteoporosis at the femur neck should be modified to prevent the acceleration of skeletal muscle loss in elderly men.     

绝经后女性肌少症

肌少症为老龄化进展过程中以骨骼肌质量及力量下降为特征的临床综合征,并伴有残疾、生活质量降低甚至死亡,在老年人群中广泛存在,严重影响老年人的生活质量,是当今社会重要的公共健康问题。目前国际上关于肌少症的诊断及筛查方法尚未统一,多个组织先后制定了肌少症共识,提出肌少症的诊断切点,临床实践中使用握力、步速等方法来评估老年人肌肉情况。绝经是一种与年龄相关的生理状况,与自然衰退的雌激素水平相关,易导致肌肉质量和力量的降低,增加肌少症患病率。绝经后女性肌肉组织的质量、功能以及肌肉组织的成分发生变化与雌激素水平降低有关,还受营养、运动、环境、遗传等其他多种复杂因素影响,目前尚没有明确关于肌少症的治疗药物,但现有证据认为阻抗运动、膳食营养、性激素替代治疗等对于改善老年绝经后女性肌肉的质量及力量具有重要作用。目前绝经与肌少症的关系还处于探索阶段,仍有许多值得进一步研究的问题,本文就肌少症的诊断及绝经后激素变化和增龄与肌少症的关系等进行综述。     

Clinical Outcomes of Living Liver Transplantation According to the Presence of Sarcopenia as Defined by Skeletal Muscle Mass,Hand Grip,and Gait Speed

Background

Sarcopenia is an independent predictor of death after living-donor liver transplantation (LDLT). However, the ability of the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia criteria for sarcopenia (defined as reduced skeletal muscle mass plus low muscle strength) to predict surgical outcomes in patients who have undergone LDLT has not been determined.

Relationship between sarcopenia,six‐minute walk distance and health‐related quality of life in liver transplant candidates

Sarcopenia, or loss of skeletal muscle mass, is associated with increased mortality and morbidity in liver transplant (LT) candidates. Six‐minute walk distance (6MWD) and health‐related quality of life (HRQOL) as assessed by short form 36 scores (SF‐36) also impact clinical outcomes in these patients. This study explored the relationship between the sarcopenia, 6MWD, and HRQOL in LT candidates. Sarcopenia was evaluated based on skeletal muscle mass index (SMI) quantified from abdominal computed tomography. Patients were followed until death, removal from the wait list or the end of the study period. Two hundred and thirteen patients listed for LT were included. The mean SMI, 6MWD and mean gait speed were 54.3 ± 9.7, 370.5 m and 1 m/s, respectively. Sarcopenia was noted in 22.2% of LT candidates. There was no correlation between sarcopenia, 6MWD, and SF‐36 scores. The 6MWD, but not sarcopenia, was an independent predictor of mortality (hazard ratio = 2.1 [0.9–4.7]). In summary, sarcopenia did not emerge as a significant predictor of waitlist mortality and also failed to correlate with either functional capacity or HRQOL in LT candidates. In patients with ESLD awaiting LT, 6MWD appears to be a more useful prognostic indicator than the presence of sarcopenia.     

Impact of Sarcopenia on Survival in Patients Undergoing Living Donor Liver Transplantation

Skeletal muscle depletion, referred to as sarcopenia, predicts morbidity and mortality in patients undergoing digestive surgery. However, the impact on liver transplantation is unclear. The present study investigated the impact of sarcopenia on patients undergoing living donor liver transplantation (LDLT). Sarcopenia was assessed by a body composition analyzer in 124 adult patients undergoing LDLT between February 2008 and April 2012. The correlation of sarcopenia with other patient factors and the impact of sarcopenia on survival after LDLT were analyzed. The median ratio of preoperative skeletal muscle mass was 92% (range, 67–130%) of the standard mass. Preoperative skeletal muscle mass was significantly correlated with the branched‐chain amino acids to tyrosine ratio (r = ?0.254, p = 0.005) and body cell mass (r = 0.636, p < 0.001). The overall survival rate in patients with low skeletal muscle mass was significantly lower than in patients with normal/high skeletal muscle mass (p < 0.001). Perioperative nutritional therapy significantly increased overall survival in patients with low skeletal muscle mass (p = 0.009). Multivariate analysis showed that low skeletal muscle mass was an independent risk factor for death after transplantation. In conclusion, sarcopenia was closely involved with posttransplant mortality in patients undergoing LDLT. Perioperative nutritional therapy significantly improved overall survival in patients with sarcopenia.

     

肌少症的CT、MR诊断及临床意义

肌少症(sarcopenia)于1997年被正式定义,是一种与年龄相关、全身广泛性复杂综合征,主要特征为骨骼肌量减少、肌力下降和功能减退。肌少症发病率随年龄增大而逐渐增高,明显降低老年人的生活质量,提高老年人群死亡率,给家庭及社会带来了极大的负面影响。近年来肌少症受到国内外学者越来越多的关注。肌量的评估是诊断肌少症的重要方面。双能X线及生物电阻抗可测量全身肌量,但是精确程度不高。CT与MR目前被认为是评估骨骼肌量的形态学金标准。CT、MR骨骼肌形态学相关研究,与骨质疏松及脆性骨折的发生有密切关系,可以对老年人及各种疾病患者的预后及生存率进行预测,并对身体成分及增肌训练的效果进行监测。临床在进行CT及MR检查,尤其是对老年人进行检查的同时应注意对肌少症的筛查与诊断。本文就肌少症的CT、MR诊断及其临床意义做一综述。     

Relationship of sarcopenia and body composition with osteoporosis

Summary

The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between sarcopenia and body composition and osteoporosis in cohorts of three different races with a total of 17,891 subjects. Lean mass and grip strength were positively associated with bone mineral densities (BMDs). Subjects with sarcopenia were two times more likely to have osteoporosis compared with normal subjects.

Introduction

The relationship between sarcopenia and osteoporosis is not totally clear. First, the present study assessed this relationship by using two different definitions for sarcopenia. Second, we examined the associations of body composition (including muscle mass as a major and important component) and muscle strength on regional and whole-body BMDs.

Methods

In total, 17,891 subjects of African American, Caucasian, and Chinese ethnicities were analyzed. Sarcopenia was defined by relative appendicular skeletal muscle mass (RASM) cut points and also by the definition of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (low RASM plus low muscle function). Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the association of fat mass, lean mass (including muscle mass), and grip strength with regional and whole-body BMDs. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to explore the association between sarcopenia and osteopenia/osteoporosis.

Results

BMDs were positively associated with lean mass and negatively associated with fat mass, after controlling for potential confounders. Grip strength was significantly associated with higher BMDs. Each standard deviation (SD) increase in RASM resulted in a ~37 % reduction in risk of osteopenia/osteoporosis (odds ratio (OR)?=?0.63; 95 % confidence interval (CI)?=?0.59, 0.66). Subjects with sarcopenia defined by RASM were two times more likely to have osteopenia/osteoporosis compared with the normal subjects (OR?=?2.04; 95 % CI?=?1.61, 2.60). Similarly, subjects with sarcopenia (low muscle mass and low grip strength) were ~1.8 times more likely to have osteopenia/osteoporosis than normal subjects (OR?=?1.87; 95 % CI?=?1.09, 3.20).

Conclusions

High lean mass and muscle strength were positively associated with BMDs. Sarcopenia is associated with low BMD and osteoporosis.