Versatility of the abductor hallucis muscle as a conjoined or distally-based flap

Soft tissue coverage of the medial ankle and foot remains a difficult, challenging, and often frustrating problem to patients as well as surgeons. To our knowledge, the abductor hallucis muscle flap is not frequently used and only a few well documented cases were found in literature. The purpose of this paper is to report and to present the long-term results of a series of four patients who underwent reconstruction of foot and ankle defects with the abductor hallucis muscle flap.In two cases, the abductor hallucis muscle flap was transposed in combination with a medialis pedis flap to cover a medial ankle defect, whereas in another case it was combined with a medial plantar flap. In this latter case, the muscle flap served to fill up a calcaneal dead space after osteomyelitis debridement, whereas the cutaneous flap was used to replace debrided skin at the heel. The abductor hallucis flap was used as a distally-based turnover flap to cover a large forefoot defect in a fourth case. Follow-up period ranged between 18 and 64 months (mean 43.3). In the early postoperative period, two flaps healed completely In two patients marginal flap necrosis occurred which was subsequently skin grafted. No donor-site complication occurred in any of the patients. In all cases, protective sensation of the skin was satisfactory as early as 6 months. In two cases mild hyperkeratosis at the skin graft border to the sole skin (non-weight bearing area of medial plantar and medialis pedis flap donor site) was present, but probably related to poor foot care. All patients were fully mobile as early as 3 months after treatment. In the long-term follow-up (43.3 months), all flaps provided with durable coverage. Functional gait deficit due to consumtion of the abductor hallucis muscle was not apparent.Our long-term results demonstrated that the abductor hallucis muscle flap is a versatile, and reliable flap suitable for the reconstruction of foot and ankle defects. Utilizing the abductor hallucis muscle as a pedicled flap (distally or proximally-based) with or without conjoined regional fasciocutaneous flaps offers a successful and durable alternative to microsurgical tree flaps for small to moderate defects over the calcaneus region, medial ankle, medial foot, and forefoot with exposed bone, tendon, or joint.     

Reconstruction of Massive Midfoot Bone and Soft Tissue Loss as a Result of Blast Injury

Lower extremity blast injuries represent a unique challenge to surgeons and often involve complex, limb-threatening wounds with extensive soft tissue and bone loss. Surgical treatment of these injuries can be difficult because of limited autogenous resources for reconstruction of the defect. In this article, we describe a technique for medial column reconstruction using iliac crest bone graft and soft tissue coverage with an abductor hallucis rotational flap combined with a split-thickness skin graft. This method addresses the extensive bone and soft tissue defects that frequently characterize blast injuries to the foot, and may be applicable in other situations where trauma or infection has caused extensive destruction of the medial column.     

Distally based abductor hallucis muscle flap: anatomic basis and clinical application

Although rarely used, the abductor hallucis muscle has its indications in coverage of small defects at the medial aspect of the hindfoot as a proximally based muscle flap. The authors describe a 69-year-old female patient in whom the abductor hallucis muscle was used as a distally based flap to reconstruct a defect in the forefoot. An anatomic study was undertaken on two cadaveric feet to explore the practicality of the distally based abductor hallucis muscle flap before it was applied clinically. The distally based abductor muscle flap receives its blood supply from minor and major pedicles in a retrograde fashion from both the dorsal arterial network and the deep plantar system, through communicating branches with the medial plantar artery distally. Transposition of the distally based hallucis flap is only advisable in individuals who have no vascular compromise in the lower leg and foot. To the authors' knowledge, this modification has not yet been described in the available literature.     

Heel coverage by a plantar myocutaneous island pedicle flap

Defects of the heel represent a difficult reconstructive problem. Previously described methods have not always been ideal especially for the posterior heel. The weight-bearing functional requirements of the heel tissue over the calcaneus are a sensitive, well padded, durable cover. The technique of choice should provide local similar tissue plus involve a single reliable operative procedure. Skin grafts placed on the calcaneus or on a muscle transposition flap, such as the flexor digitorum brevis, abductor hallucis, or abductor digiti minimi muscle, provide a thin, insensitive, and dissimilar surface. The cross-foot, cross-leg, cross-thigh, and buttock flaps provide more bulk and thicker skin. These flaps involve a prolonged hospitalization, multiple procedures, increased morbidity, and insensitive tissue. The dorsal foot island flap and microvascular free flaps are a one-stage procedure with less morbidity. The donor tissue is still too dissimilar to provide the protection and durability to this area. Random plantar flaps have provided a functional replacement with similar tissue having adequate sensation. However, these random flaps are not always reliable, have limited motion, and are limited usually to small defects. Recently the myocutaneous flap has been proposed using the flexor digitorum brevis muscle. This neurovascularized flap is larger and more reliable. Our dissection study of plantar tissue using microlatex injected feet has expanded the plantar flap for easier heel coverage and provided a predictable flap area. By mobilizing the pedicle proximally to the posterior tibial artery, the flap has an expanded coverage arc. Thus the heel is covered with a sensitive and durable tissue to allow weight bearing, frictional trauma, and ambulation.     

应用携带肌肉的小腿内侧皮瓣修复足部软组织缺损

目的探讨应用携带肌肉的小腿内侧皮瓣修复足部软组织缺损的临床效果。方法采用携带肌肉的小腿内侧皮瓣修复足部软组织缺损9例,缺损面积：6cm×8cm～8cm×18cm。供区均选用同侧小腿。皮瓣切取面积：7cm×9cm～10cm×20cm。结果9例皮瓣均一期成活。获随访7例,时间4～13个月,皮瓣质地柔软,供区植皮处无明显瘢痕挛缩,外观及功能均满意。结论该类皮瓣成活率高,操作简单,切取方便,血供可靠,抗感染能力强,是修复足部软组织缺损较理想皮瓣。     

Distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap for forefoot coverage

The authors describe their experience with the use of the distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap for distal foot coverage. Ten patients underwent reconstruction with 13 flaps between 2004 and 2008. One patient suffered from a traffic accident and 9 from electrical injury. All of the soft tissue defects resulted in metatarsophalangeal joint and phalanx bone exposure. The size of the flaps ranged from 6 × 2 cm to 11 × 6 cm. The flaps were elevated based on intermediate or medial dorsal pedal nerves. Nine flaps were harvested in first stage to repair the distal foot. Among them, 3 showed partial necrosis in the distal region because of venous insufficiency. Four flaps underwent a surgical delay procedure in the first stage and were then transferred to reconstruct phalanx wounds in the second stage, surviving completely. All patients were satisfied with their reconstruction and donor site contour. The distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap can be used to repair the distal foot soft tissue defects, providing sufficient skin territory and excellent aesthetic and functional recovery. Surgical delay effectively enhances the distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap survival, particularly for the large size flaps.     

吻合血管的足内侧穿支皮瓣的应用解剖与临床应用

目的 研究足内侧穿支皮瓣的应用解剖及修复手部软组织缺损的临床效果.方法 10侧成人足踝标本经胴动脉注入红色乳胶液,解剖观测足底内侧动脉穿支血管在足内侧区的分布、起源等.临床设计吻合血管的足内侧穿支皮瓣修复手部软组织缺损11例,软组织缺损面积2 cm×2 cm～9cm×4 cm.结果 足底内侧动脉向<足母>展肌和趾短屈肌肌间隙内发出2支相对恒定的足底内侧皮穿支,供养足底内侧皮瓣;向<足母>展肌和舟楔骨间隙内发出2支相对恒定的足内侧皮穿支,供养足内侧皮瓣.11例足内侧穿支皮瓣完全成活,皮瓣面积2 cm×3 cm～11 cm×5 cm.随访6～24个月,皮瓣质地优良,外形与功能恢复满意,供区愈合良好.结论 以足内侧穿支血管营养的足内侧穿支皮瓣血供可靠,质地优良,是修复手部软组织缺损的良好选择.     

Utility of both muscle and fascia flaps in severe lower extremity trauma

BACKGROUND: The evolving technology in trauma management today permits salvage of many severe lower extremity injuries previously even considered to be lethal. An essential component for any such treatment protocol must be adequate soft tissue coverage that often will use vascularized flaps. Traditionally, calf muscles have been used proximally and free flaps for the distal leg and foot. The reintroduction of reliable local fascia flaps has challenged this dictum, proving to be a simpler and yet versatile option. MATERIALS AND METHOD: The role of both muscle and fascia flaps in lower extremity injuries has been retrospectively reviewed from a 2-decade experience. Soft tissue deficits requiring some form of vascularized flap occurred in 160 limbs in 155 patients. The frequency of use of flap types, specific complications and benefits, effect of timing of wound closure, and rate of limb salvage were compared. RESULTS: Initial coverage after significant lower extremity trauma in these 160 limbs required 60 local muscle flaps, 50 local fascia flaps, and 74 free flaps. These flaps had been selected on a nonrandom basis according to wound location, its severity, and flap availability. Complications were directly related to the severity of injury, and for free flaps as a group (39%), although these were not independent variables. Local muscle (27%) or fascia flaps (30%) were similar with regard to this morbidity. Healing was more likely to be uneventful if coverage were accomplished during the acute period after injury, regardless of flap type. Muscle flaps were still used in two thirds of all cases, with the soleus muscle used as often for the distal leg as the mid-leg. Local fascia flaps were most valuable for smaller defects, especially in the distal leg or foot, and often as a reasonable alternative to a free flap. CONCLUSION: The traditional role of the gastrocnemius muscles for flap coverage of knee and proximal leg defects and the soleus muscle for the middle third of the leg was reaffirmed. The soleus muscle often also reached distal leg defects as could local fascia flaps, where classically, otherwise, a free flap would have been necessary. The largest or most severe wounds, irrespective of limb location, required free flap coverage. Local fascia flaps proved to be a valuable alternative.     

小腿内侧皮瓣联合内侧半比目鱼肌瓣桥式带蒂转移术治疗对侧小腿软组织缺损

目的探讨小腿内侧皮瓣联合内侧半比目鱼肌瓣桥式带蒂转移术治疗对侧小腿软组织缺损的疗效。方法回顾性分析2012年1月至2016年1月甘肃省兰州市兰州手足外科医院骨科收治的8例小腿软组织缺损患者资料。男5例,女3例;年龄19~50岁,平均35岁。所有患者均以胫后动脉为蒂小腿内侧皮瓣联合内侧半比目鱼肌瓣桥式带蒂转移术治疗。软组织缺损的范围为10 cm×9 cm^13 cm×8 cm。肌瓣和血管蒂表面行一期中厚网状游离植皮,供区直接缝合。末次随访时按Iowa等提出的胫骨骨折疗效评定方法评定疗效。结果术后所有患者的皮瓣和肌瓣全部成活,没有发生血管危象。有1例患者发生肌瓣远端小块植皮坏死,经2周换药处理自然愈合。术后所有患者获2.5~4.5年(平均3.8年)随访。受区外形较好。末次随访时按Iowa等提出的胫骨骨折疗效评定方法评定疗效:优3例,良4例,可1例。结论小腿内侧皮瓣联合内侧半比目鱼肌瓣桥式带蒂转移术适用于治疗小腿仅有1条主要血管的软组织缺损,可减轻供区损伤。     

小腿内侧皮支皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损7例报告

目的探讨小腿内侧皮支皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损的临床效果。方法2003年3月～2005年10月，我院应用小腿内侧皮支皮瓣转移修复各种原因所致的足踝部软组织缺损7例。以胫骨内侧缘为纵轴，在比目鱼肌与趾长屈肌间隙，寻找胫后动脉皮支，根据皮支位置及长度，确定切取皮瓣的范围和位置，将皮支皮瓣转移至皮肤软组织缺损区，供区游离植皮。结果手术时间3～5h，平均4．2h。7例术后皮瓣全部成活，随访5～18个月，平均10个月，基本保持足部外形和功能，可满足日常生活自理的需要。结论小腿内侧皮支皮瓣不牺牲小腿主要血管，修复足踝部软组织缺损，手术简单安全，是一种比较理想的方法。     

Modified retrograde‐flow medial plantar island flap for reconstruction of distal dorsal forefoot defects—Two case reports

Soft tissue reconstruction of the distal forefoot and toes poses a difficult problem. Skin grafts are not suitable when deep structures are exposed. Local flaps are not available, particularly for defects of the toes. Free flaps are spared for larger defects. Medial plantar flap has been widely used for plantar defects, especially weight‐bearing surface of the heel. Distally based retrograde‐flow design of this flap allows the transfer of the pedicled flap distally and provides coverage of soft tissue over the metatarsal heads. In this report, we further modified the retrograde‐flow medial plantar island flap to extend its use for distal dorsal forefoot defects. The technique and outcomes of two patients are presented. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2010.     

Gastrocnemius pedicled muscle flap for knee and upper tibia soft tissue reconstruction. A useful tool for the orthopaedic surgeon

Soft tissue defect coverage has always been a challenge for the orthopaedic surgeon. Over the last decades the surgery of flaps has completely changed the prognosis for large defects. The purpose of this study is to retrospectively review our experience with the gastrocnemius muscle as pedicled local flaps for reconstruction of knee and upper third of the tibia soft tissue defects.Twenty-seven patients underwent reconstruction of soft tissue defects around the knee using pedicled gastrocnemius muscle flaps. There were eighteen men and nine women ranged in with a mean age of 50.3 years. Medial gastrocnemius was used in 21 cases, and lateral gastrocnemius in 5 cases. In one patient, soleus and medial gastrocnemius were transferred simultaneously. All but one had at the same time split thickness skin graft for coverage of the muscle.All muscle flaps transferred were successful. There were no complications and all flaps survived completely without vascular compromise, satisfactory coverage of the defect, and good primary wound healing. There has been no recurrence of osteomyelitis. The donor sites healed perfectly with no remarkable resultant functional disability. A mean follow-up of 4.4 years revealed acceptable cosmetic results with high patient satisfaction.Our results indicate that the gastrocnemius muscle transfer is a useful technique for coverage of soft tissue defects in the upper tibia and around the knee in our orthopaedic practice. It is a reliable option for the coverage of exposed bone, the filling up of deep cavities and the treatment of bone infection. The principal advantage of a muscle flap is to bring a real blood supply to the recipient site and to improve the trophicity of the surrounding tissues. The pedicled muscle flap is our preference for the management of soft tissue defects around the knee, when no other procedure, apart from free flap is suitable. The pedicle flap is easier, quicker and with less complications than a free flap. Orthopaedic surgery has gained much from the use of island flap, however, it requires knowledge of the vascular anatomy and its variations promoted through cadaveric dissections and flap dissection courses.     

Posterior tibial artery-based multilobar combined flap free transfer for repair of complex soft tissue defects

In this report, the posterior tibial artery (PTA) based multilobar combined flap is introduced for the repair of complex soft tissue defects. The flap was designed based on the perforatoring branches of PTA in the anterior soleus muscle septum, which supply the skin over the medial side of the calf and the entire soleus muscle. The saphenous nerve was included in one perforator flap of the combined flap for reinnervation. The tibial artery was repaired with a vein graft after harvest of flap. From October 2005 to February 2007, eight patients (6 males, 2 females) underwent PTA-based multilobar combined flap transfer for coverage of soft tissue defects involving the foot (three cases), hand (two cases), and calf (three cases). Each combined flap composed of two to three perforator flaps, and the size of the perforator flaps ranged from 4 x 2 cm to 10 x 8 cm. With an average follow-up of 6 months, all flaps survived without complications and injured extremities showed a good functional recovery with restoration of the partial protective sensation on the flap with reinnervation. This clinical report has shown that a reliable multilobar combined flap can be designed based on the perforators of the posterior tibial artery and used for coverage of the complex wound.     

Utilizing a crossover reverse sural artery flap for soft tissue reconstruction of the plantar forefoot after a severe degloving injury

Extensive soft tissue defects involving the weight-bearing areas of the plantar aspect of the foot often require coverage with flaps. The options often include free flaps, free muscle flaps with split-thickness skin grafting, or local flaps. When presented with high-energy-induced soft tissue injuries of the foot, choices become narrow, secondary to the associated zone of injury. Free flaps require a viable recipient vessel suitable for microvascular anastomosis. Split-thickness skin grafts applied to the plantar aspect of the foot are prone to persistent breakdown. Local flaps if available are useful for coverage of plantar soft tissue defects. However, when local flaps of the affected limb are compromised or extension is not sufficient for coverage, crossover leg and foot flaps become invaluable. The reported cases of crossover sural artery flaps are sparse. To the best of the authors' knowledge, the few reported cases of crossover leg and sural artery flaps were described to provide soft tissue coverage over the heel and leg. The authors report a case of a crossover reverse sural artery flap for soft tissue coverage to the plantar aspect of the forefoot after a high-energy-induced degloving injury.     

Reconstruction of Heel Defects With a Proximally Based Abductor Hallucis Muscle Flap

The main goals of reconstruction of plantar defects include appropriate soft tissue coverage to facilitate weight bearing, and sufficient blood supply to prevent osteomyelitis. This retrospective study presents the clinical results of 11 patients who received a proximally based abductor hallucis muscle flap for coverage of calcaneal defects. The mean patient age was 43 years (range, 23-69 years). Four patients were women and 7 were men. Seven were non-diabetic patients with neurologic deficits of varying etiology or patients who had pressure ulcers after prolonged hospitalization. Four patients had diabetes with or without neurological deficits, and 6 patients had calcaneal osteomyelitis. In 6 patients, the origin of the muscle was dissected and rotated over the defect. The flap was elevated as an island flap in 5 patients. Postoperatively, partial flap loss was observed in 1 patient, who was then treated successfully with a fasciocutaneous flap. Two patients developed seroma and hematoma at the donor site, which resolved uneventfully after surgical drainage. The 6 patients with calcaneal osteomyelitis showed no recurrence after 1 year of follow-up. The abductor hallucis muscle flap provides enough stability and sufficient blood supply for calcaneal defects up to 3 x 6 cm.     

跖内侧皮瓣联合肋骨移植修复多手指末节骨与软组织缺损

目的 总结跖内侧皮瓣联合肋骨移植修复多手指末节掌侧骨与软组织缺损的临床应用结果. 方法 2004年2月至2006年7月,应用吻合血管的跖内侧皮瓣联合肋骨移植修复5例(男4例,女1例)手指末节掌侧骨与软组织缺损,年龄19～43岁(平均31岁).其中,双指损伤3例,3指损伤2例.皮瓣血管蒂与受区的血管行端端吻合,供区创面行中厚网状游离植皮修复. 结果 1例术后供区发生表浅感染,经更换敷料逐渐自行愈合.皮瓣全部成活,随访10～28个月(平均19个月),供区与受区外形较好,手指感觉恢复.两点分辨觉5～14 mm(平均8 mm).结论 跖内侧皮瓣以跖内侧动脉为血供,血运丰富、血管解剖恒定、血管蒂长以及切取容易,联合肋骨移植很适宜修复多手指末节掌侧骨与软组织缺损.     

Reconstruction of distal lower extremities defect using the free peroneal artery perforator vessel based flap

Soft tissue defects of the distal lower extremities are challenging. The purpose of this paper is to present our experiences with the free peroneal artery perforator flap for the reconstruction of soft tissue defects of the distal lower extremity. Nine free peroneal artery perforator flaps were used to reconstruct soft tissue defects of the lower extremities between April 2006 and October 2011. All flaps were used for distal leg and foot reconstruction. Peroneal artery perforator flaps ranged in size from 2 cm × 4 cm to 6 cm × 12 cm. The length of the vascular pedicle ranged from 2 to 6 cm. Recipient vessels were: medial plantar vessels in seven cases, the dorsalis pedis vessel in one, metatarsal vessel in one. All flaps survived completely, a success rate of 100%. Advantages of this flap are that there is no need to sacrifice any main artery in the lower leg, and minimal morbidity at the donor site. This free perforator flap may be useful for patients with small to medium soft tissue defects of the distal lower extremities and feet. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 34:629–632, 2014.     

Foot and ankle reconstruction: An experience on the use of 14 different flaps in 226 cases

The aim of this report was to present our experience on the use of different flaps for soft tissue reconstruction of the foot and ankle. From 2007 to 2012, the soft tissue defects of traumatic injuries of the foot and ankle were reconstructed using 14 different flaps in 226 cases (162 male and 64 female). There were 62 pedicled flaps and 164 free flaps used in reconstruction. The pedicled flaps included sural flap, saphenous flap, dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap, pedicled peroneal artery perforator flap, pedicled tibial artery perforator flap, and medial plantar flap. The free flaps were latissimus musculocutaneous flap, anterolateral thigh musculocutaneous flap, groin flap, lateral arm flap, anterolateral thigh perforator flap, peroneal artery perforator flap, thoracdorsal artery perforator flap, medial arm perforator flap. The sensory nerve coaptation was not performed for all of flaps. One hundred and ninety‐four cases were combined with open fractures. One hundred and sixty‐two cases had tendon. Among 164 free flaps, 8 flaps were completely lost, in which the defects were managed by the secondary procedures. Among the 57 flaps for plantar foot coverage (25 pedicled flaps and 32 free flaps), ulcers were developed in 5 pedicled flaps and 6 free flaps after weight bearing, and infection was found in 14 flaps. The donor site complications were seen in 3 cases with the free anterolateral thigh perforator flap transfer. All of limbs were preserved and the patients regained walking and daily activities. All of patients except for one regained protective sensation from 3 to 12 months postoperatively. Our experience showed that the sural flap and saphenous flap could be good options for the coverage of the defects at malleolus, dorsal hindfoot and midfoot. Plantar foot, forefoot and large size defects could be reconstructed with free anterolateral thigh perforator flap. For the infected wounds with dead spce, the free latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap remained to be the optimal choice. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 33:600–604, 2013.     

足底岛状肌皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损

目的报道足底岛状肌皮瓣修复踝足部软组织缺损的临床应用体会。方法采用足底内侧岛状皮瓣21例;足底外侧岛状皮瓣8例;足内侧岛状皮瓣14例;坶外展肌皮瓣16例;趾短屈肌皮瓣6例;足底内侧远端蒂逆行皮瓣4例,共修复踝足部软组织缺损69例。结果随访6月～2年,肌皮瓣全部成活,均保留和恢复了踝足部的外形和功能。结论采用足底动脉为蒂的岛状肌皮瓣修复踝足部软组织缺损,有良好的血供,效果满意。     

Combined turnover vastus lateralis and lateral gastrocnemius flaps as a salvage option for soft tissue reconstruction of the knee

Infection with subsequent wound breakdown and soft tissue deficit represents the most devastating complication after total knee arthroplasty. Although microsurgical reconstruction is increasingly being performed in this setting, several factors may preclude its use. We present a case of a 52-year-old female patient who presented with a complex right anterior knee wound resulting from a complicated clinical course following total knee arthroplasty. Initial reconstructive efforts included coverage with a superiorly based fasciocutaneous thigh flap as well as a medial gastrocnemius flap. Persistence of infection and necrosis of the distal aspect of the fasciocutaneous flap eventually required salvage by means of a vastus lateralis turnover muscle flap augmented by a lateral gastrocnemius muscle flap. The combination of these two fairly straightforward muscle flaps provided stable wound coverage with well-vascularized tissue without the use of sophisticated microsurgical expertise. Level of Evidence: V, therapeutic study