EEG in dengue virus infection with neurological manifestations: a clinical and CT/MRI correlation.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate electroencephalography (EEG) changes in dengue virus infection and correlate these with clinical, laboratory and CT/MRI changes. METHODS: Consecutive patients with dengue virus infection were prospectively evaluated. A detailed history and clinical examination were carried out. Level of consciousness was assessed by Glasgow Coma scale (GCS). Cranial CT scan or MRI or both were carried out. EEG was carried out within 24h of hospitalization and repeated after 15-30 days. Outcome was defined at 1 month into death, poor, partial and complete recovery. RESULTS: Twenty-four patients aged 5-65 years with dengue virus infection having neurological manifestations were included; of whom six were females. EEG revealed theta to delta slowing in 11 out of 20 patients. Five of these patients had seizures, 12 altered sensorium, 3 hypotension, 9 CSF pleocytosis, 3 moderate to severe liver dysfunction and 2 MRI abnormalities who had Japanese encephalitis virus coinfection. Presence of EEG slowing correlated with altered sensorium and depth of coma but not with outcome. At 1 month, three patients died and 16 had complete, three partial and two poor recovery. CONCLUSIONS: EEG revealed non-specific slowing in 55% patients with dengue virus infection, which correlated with level of consciousness but not with CT/MRI abnormalities or clinical recovery. SIGNIFICANCE: Dengue virus infection results in non-specific EEG slowing in 55% patients, which may be due to dengue virus encephalitis per se or associated confounding variables such as seizure, metabolic encephalopathy, or structural brain lesion.     

CT scan in minor head injury: a guide for rural doctors

Minor head injury in a developing country like Malaysia is managed by primary care physicians and/or medical assistants in district hospitals. These patients are seen initially in their local hospitals, which have at least an X-ray machine for the purpose of screening. This study aimed to guide these physicians to manage these patients at a primary care level. A cross-sectional study was conducted and the study revealed significant predictors of significant computed tomographic (CT) findings. The presence of a Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score of 14 or 13 was associated with the risk of developing significant CT findings compared to patients with a GCS of 15 (p<0.001). Thirty-seven out of 50 patients with GCS of 14 or 13 developed clinically significant brain injury on CT scan. Similarly, the presence of skull fracture was associated with the risk of developing CT abnormalities (p<0.001). Forty-two out of 51 patients with skull fracture developed clinically significant CT findings. Vomiting was associated with developing CT abnormalities (p=0.017). Twenty-seven out of 40 patients with vomiting showed significant CT findings. Soft tissue injury was also found to be associated with developing CT abnormalities (p=0.007). Therefore, we propose reclassifying minor head injury based on the GCS score. Patients with a GCS score of 15 were classified as having mild head injury, while patients with a GCS score of 13 or 14 were at higher risk of developing brain injury and therefore categorized as high risk mild head injury. This group requires emergency CT scan examination, especially when associated with non-motor vehicle accidents, abnormal central nervous system (CNS) examination, craniofacial injuries or skull fractures. They should be referred to a general surgical unit which can treat head injuries or a neurosurgical tertiary centre.     

简易运动评分与GCS对颅脑损伤伤情评价的比较

目的探讨简易运动评分(SMS)对颅脑损伤伤病情评价的可靠性。方法对72例颅脑损伤患者,分别行SMS和GCS评价并比较其伤情和不同伤情患者的预后。结果两种评价均为颅脑损伤轻型者57例,均为中重型者12例;有3例GCS评为中重型,而SMS评为轻型;SMS与GCS对伤情的评价无明显差异(P>0.05)。两种方法均评为重型者4例,3例恢复差(GOS1～3分),1例恢复良好(GOS4～5分);8例均为中型者,2例恢复差,6例良好;57例均为轻型者均恢复良好;3例GCS评为中型,而SMS评为轻型者均恢复良好。SMS与GCS分别评为颅脑损伤轻型或中型或轻型者中,预后无明显差异(P>0.05)。结论与GCS相比,SMS可作为脑损伤病情的评价方法之一,简便易行,结果可靠。     

Hypofibrinogenemia in isolated traumatic brain injury in Indian patients

Coagulation abnormalities are common in patients with head injuries. However, the effect of brain injury on fibrinogen levels has not been well studied prospectively to assess coagulation abnormalities in patients with moderate and severe head injuries and correlate these abnormalities with the neurologic outcome. Consecutive patients with moderate (Glasgow Comma Scale (GCS),9-12) and severe (GCS≤8) head injuries were the subjects of this pilot study, All patients had coagulation parameters, including plasma fibrinogen levels measured. Clinical and computed tomography (CT) scan findings and immediate clinical outcome were analyzed. Of the 100 patients enrolled, only seven (7%) patients had hypofibrinogenemia (fibrinogen ≤200 mg/dL). The head injury was moderate in two patients and severe in five patients. Fibrinogen levels showed a progressively increasing trend in four patients (three with severe head injuries and one with moderate head injury). CT scan revealed subdural hematoma in five patients; extradural hematoma in one; and subarachnoid hemorrhage in another patient. Of the seven patients, two patients died during hospital. Large-scale prospective studies are needed to assess the fibrinogen level in patients with head injury and its impact on outcome.     

轻型颅脑损伤后患者血清生物标志物GFAP含量的临床研究

目的通过分别检测并比较轻型颅脑损伤(m TBI)患者、格拉斯哥昏迷量表(GCS)评分在13~15分的中型颅脑损伤患者和健康对照组血清胶质细胞纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)含量,为临床诊断m TBI患者提供依据。方法用ELISA法检测43例轻、35例中型颅脑损伤患者和20例健康对照组血清GFAP含量并采用ROC曲线分析,对比m TBI患者和中型颅脑损伤患者血清GFAP含量与头颅CT的关系。结果血清GFAP含量对鉴别m TBI患者和健康人群有一定准确性(AUC=0.726);对鉴别GCS评分在13~15分的中型颅脑损伤患者和健康人群有较高准确性(AUC=0.914);血清GFAP含量对鉴别头颅CT阳性和阴性患者有一定准确性(AUC=0.762)。结论血清GFAP可作为m TBI患者诊断的生物标志物,对鉴别颅脑损伤后头颅CT阳性和阴性患者有一定准确性,可以为减少m TBI患者头颅CT检查提供依据。     

Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury: The Grey Zone of Neurotrauma

Moderate traumatic brain injury (MTBI) is poorly defined in the literature and the nomenclature “moderate” is misleading, because up to 15 % of such patients may die. MTBI is a heterogeneous entity that shares many aspects of its pathophysiology and management with severe traumatic brain injury. Many patients who ‘’talk and died’’ are MTBI. The role of neuroimaging is essential for the proper management of these patients. To analyze all aspects of the pathophysiology and management of MTBI, proposing a new way to categorize it considering the clinical picture and neuroimaging findings. We proposed a different approach to the group of patients with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ranging from 9 through 13 and we discuss the rationale for this proposal. Patients with lower GCS scores (9–10), especially those with significant space-occupying lesions on the CT scan, should be managed following the guidelines for severe traumatic brain injury, with ICU observation, frequent serial computed tomography (CT) scanning and ICP monitoring. On the other hand, those with higher range GCS (11–13) can be managed more conservatively with serial neurological examination and CT scans. Given the available evidence, MTBI is an entity that needs reclassification. Large-scale and well-designed studies are urgently needed.     

磁敏感加权成像在轻型颅脑损伤患者中的诊断价值

目的探讨磁共振磁敏感加权成像(SWI)对轻型颅脑损伤(MTBI)患者的诊断价值。方法回顾分析32例MTBI患者(格拉斯哥昏迷量表评分13~15分)的临床资料。患者伤后1周内给予头部CT、MRI及SWI检查,结合CT及相位图排除气体、血管和颅底伪影后,SWI图上的低信号为脑内挫伤出血灶。分别记录MRI常规序列和SWI探查到的病灶数目、发生部位,并结合临床症状进行分析。结果 SWI对脑外伤微小挫伤出血灶检查阳性率明显高于CT及MRI普通序列扫描,特别是在伤后出现晕厥昏迷史或持续性出现临床症状的患者中更为明显。结论 SWI比常规CT及MRI对MTBI患者脑内微小挫伤及出血灶的检出有更高的准确性和客观的诊断价值,并对指导临床治疗及判断预后有重大意义。     

Clinical and computed tomographic comparisons of analysis of the condition in children with brain injury of 13-15 scores by the Glasgow Coma Scale on admission to hospital

Clinical and computed tomographic comparisons were made in 590 children with mild brain injury (BI). The children admitted for BI of 13-15 scores assessed by the Glasgow coma scale (GCS) in the first hour after injury were examined. They all underwent brain computed tomography (CT), skull X-ray study, and neurological studies. Their history data were analyzed. 73% of the children were admitted within the first 12 hours following injury. Falling from the growth height was mainly responsible for BI (45.2%). The frequency of the CT signs of BI was 36.3%. Surgical treatment was required in 5.8% of the children; among them 4.4% and 1.4% were operated on for depressed fractures and intracranial hematomas, respectively. A relationship was found between the presence of the CT signs of BI and the GCS scores on admission. With 15 and 13 GCS scores, the positive CT pattern was detected in 16 and 70% of cases. Well-defined focal neurological symptoms and multiple vomiting (38 and 57%, respectively) are predictors of acute pathology on a CT scan. X-ray skull fracture increases the likelihood of CT pathology up to 62%. Consciousness disturbance of as high as 13-14 GCS score concurrent with noticeable neurological symptoms and skull fracture increases the probability of the positive CT pattern up to 93%. X-ray and CT studies did not reveal acute traumatic injuries when there were traces of skull injury in the presence of clear consciousness and in the absence of vomiting.     

Depth of lesion model in children and adolescents with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: use of SPGR MRI to predict severity and outcome

OBJECTIVES: The utility of a depth of lesion classification using an SPGR MRI sequence in children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) was examined. Clinical and depth of lesion classification measures of TBI severity were used to predict neurological and functional outcome after TBI. METHODS: One hundred and six children, aged 4 to 19, with moderate to severe TBI admitted to a rehabilitation unit had an SPGR MRI sequence obtained 3 months afterTBI. Acquired images were analyzed for location, number, and size of lesions. The Glasgow coma scale (GCS) was the clinical indicator of severity. The deepest lesion present was used for depth of lesion classification. Speed of injury was inferred from the type of injury. The disability rating scale at the time of discharge from the rehabilitation unit (DRS1) and at 1 year follow up (DRS2) were functional outcome measures. RESULTS: The depth of lesion classification was significantly correlated with GCS severity, number of lesions, and both functional measures, DRS1 and DRS2. This result was more robust for time 1, probably due to the greater number of psychosocial factors impacting on functioning at time 2. Lesion volume was not correlated with the depth of lesion model. In multivariate models, depth of lesion was most predictive of DRS1, whereas GCS was most predictive of DRS2. CONCLUSIONS: A depth of lesion classification of TBI severity may have clinical utility in predicting functional outcome in children and adolescents with moderate to severe TBI.     

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for the treatment of traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis

Compelling evidence suggests the advantage of hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) in traumatic brain injury. The present meta-analysis evaluated the outcomes of HBOT in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Prospective studies comparing hyperbaric oxygen therapy vs. control in patients with mild (GCS 13–15) to severe (GCS 3–8) TBI were hand-searched from medical databases using the terms “hyperbaric oxygen therapy, traumatic brain injury, and post-concussion syndrome”. Glasgow coma scale (GCS) was the primary outcome, while Glasgow outcome score (GOS), overall mortality, and changes in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) score, constituted the secondary outcomes. The results of eight studies (average age of patients, 23–41 years) reveal a higher post-treatment GCS score in the HBOT group (pooled difference in means = 3.13, 95 % CI 2.34–3.92, P < 0.001), in addition to greater improvement in GOS and lower mortality, as compared to the control group. However, no significant change in the PTSD score was observed. Patients undergoing hyperbaric therapy achieved significant improvement in the GCS and GOS with a lower overall mortality, suggesting its utility as a standard intensive care regimen in traumatic brain injury.     

Traumatic brain stem lesions in children

Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores on admission may be predictors of outcome in patients with brain injuries. This study correlated the outcomes of children with traumatic brain stem lesions with their initial GCS scores and morphological patterns of injury as shown on computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. During the last 16 years, we have treated 1,108 children with brain injuries. The entire series included only 21 (1.9%) children who had clinical signs of brain stem lesions with morphological correlates on CT or MR imaging. Clinical findings were assessed according to the GCS and compared with scores on the Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS). Of these 21 children, 16 (76%) had morphological lesions seen on CT scans. In 5 (24%) of the children only the MR images revealed brain stem lesions and their CT scans were negative. Generalized severe brain swelling was present in 6 cases (28%). There was a significant difference in GOS scores between patients with initial GCS scores of 3 and 4 and those with GCS scores between 5 and 7 (P<0.02). Children with intracranial pressure higher than 40 mmHg had poorer outcomes than patients whose intracranial pressure was lower, but the differences were not significant. Outcome did not correlate significantly with morphological patterns of injury or the presence of extracranial injuries. The GCS is a reliable indicator of severity of injury and of outcome in children with brain stem injuries. MR imaging was more sensitive than CT in detecting brain stem lesions. Received: 9 March 1999     

Catecholamines predict outcome in traumatic brain injury

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system attends traumatic brain injury, but the association of the severity of neurological impairment and recovery with the extent of sympathetic nervous system stimulation is poorly defined. In this study, plasma norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (E), and dopamine (DA) levels were measured serially in 33 patients with traumatic brain injury and compared with the Glasgow Coma Score (GCS), which was obtained concurrently. A catecholamine gradient that reflected the extent of brain injury was demonstrated within 48 hours of the injury. In patients with a GCS of 3 to 4, NE and E levels increased four- to fivefold and the DA level increased threefold above normal (NE, 1686 +/- 416 pg/ml; E, 430 +/- 172 pg/ml; DA, 236 +/- 110 pg/ml), while patients with mild brain injury (GCS, greater than 11) had slightly elevated or normal levels. Patients with marked (GCS, 5 to 7) and moderate (GCS, 8 to 10) traumatic brain injuries had intermediate levels. The prognostic value of determining admission levels of NE was shown in patients with an admission GCS of 3 to 4 1 week after injury. Patients with severe and unchanging neurological impairment 1 week after injury had markedly elevated initial NE levels (2,176 +/- 531 pg/ml), whereas initial NE levels (544 +/- 89 pg/ml) were only mildly elevated in patients who improved to a GCS of greater than 11. These data indicate that markedly elevated NE levels predict outcome in patients with comparable neurological deficits. Thus levels of circulating catecholamines are excellent endogenous and readily quantifiable markers that appear to reflect the extent of brain injury and that may predict the likelihood of recovery.     

交通伤所致重型颅脑损伤患者预后的临床影响因素分析

目的分析交通伤所致重型颅脑损伤患者预后的影响因素。方法回顾性分析2012-03-2014-04我院收治的108例交通伤所致重型颅脑损伤患者的临床资料,根据格拉斯哥预后评分(GOS)分为预后不佳组和预后良好组,对年龄、性别、收缩压、血氧饱和度、血糖、瞳孔评分、损伤严重度评分(ISS)、格拉斯哥昏迷评分(GCS)等可能的影响因素进行单因素分析,并对单因素分析结果中的危险因素进行多因素Logistic回归分析。结果单因素分析结果提示,血氧饱和度、收缩压、血糖、瞳孔评分、ISS评分、GCS评分与患者预后有关,P0.05;多因素Logistic回归分析提示,血糖、血氧饱和度、ISS评分、GCS评分为影响预后的独立危险因素,P0.05。结论交通伤所致重型颅脑损伤患者的预后与血糖、血氧饱和度、ISS评分、GCS评分具有密切关系,重点关注、针对性改善这些指标对改善此类患者的预后具有重要意义。     

Expanding traumatic intracerebral contusion/hematoma

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Delayed traumatic hematomas and expansion of already detected hematomas are not uncommon. Only few studies are available on risk factors of expanding hematomas. A prospective study was aimed to find out risk factors associated with such traumatic lesions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Present study is based on 262 cases of intracerebral hematomas / contusions out of which 43 (16.4%) hematomas expanded in size. computerized tomography (CT) scan was done in all the patients at the time of admission and within 24 hours of injury. Repeat CT scan was done within 24 hours, 4 days and 7 days. Midline shift if any, prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, bleeding time, clotting time and platelet counts, Glasgow coma scale at admission and discharge and Glasgow outcome score at 6 months follow up were recorded. RESULTS: Twenty six percent, 11.3 and 0% patients developed expanding hematoma in Glasgow Coma scale (GCS) of 8 and below, 9-12 and 13-15 respectively. The chances of expanding hematomas were higher in patients with other associated hematomas (17.4%) as compared to isolated hematoma (4.8%) (Fisher's exact results P =0.216). All the cases of expanding hematoma had some degree of midline shift and considerably higher proportion had presence of coagulopathy. The results of logistic regression analysis showed GCS, midline shift and coagulopathy as significant predictors for the expanding hematoma. Thirty nine patients (90.7%) of the total expanding hematomas developed within 24 hours of injury. CONCLUSIONS: Enlargement of intracerebral hematomas is quite common and majority of them expand early after the injury. These lesions were common in patients with poor GCS, associated hematomas, associated coagulopathy and midline shift.     

高压氧及右正中神经电刺激对重型颅脑外伤患者的术后催醒作用

目的 探讨高压氧(HBO)及右正中神经电刺激(RMNS)对重型颅脑损伤患者术后催醒的影响. 方法 选择83例术后恢复期重型颅脑损伤患者,按随机数字表法分为治疗组(n=42)和对照组(n=41),其中对照组患者接受常规及对症治疗,治疗组在此基础上同时进行高压氧(HBO)及右正中神经电刺激(RMNS)治疗.3个月后比较2组患者的格拉斯哥昏迷评分(GCS)、格拉斯哥预后评分(GOS)、日常生活能力评分(ADL)、神经功能缺损评定(ESS)和远期生活质量评分(KPS),采用经颅三维多普勒彩色超声(TCD)和脑地形图(BEAM)分别评定脑血流量和脑电活动的变化. 结果与对照组比较,治疗组患者治疗1、3个月时各项评分均有改善,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);TCD检查显示治疗组患者病灶局部脑血流量明显提高,对照组仅有17例患者病灶局部脑血流量较前有所提高;与对照组比较,BEAM显示治疗组患者治疗后弥漫性慢波明显减少. 结论 高压氧及右正中神经电刺激治疗能促进重型颅脑损伤患者脑组织和脑神经功能的恢复,促进意识水平的改善.     

应用MRI分级预测颅脑损伤长期意识障碍患者的清醒时间及预后

目的 探讨颅脑损伤长期意识障碍患者MRI分级与清醒时间及预后的关系.方法 收集珠江医院神经外科自2003年至2008年收治的66例重型颅脑损伤后意识障碍超过2周的患者,记录患者颅脑MRI表现并进行分级;记录所有清醒患者损伤后清醒时间;预后以患者伤后6个月时GOS评分进行判别.结果 患者预后(GOS评分)与MRI分级存在联系,分级越高者,预后越差;MRI对预后的预测准确率为83.33%.MRI分级为Ⅰ级和Ⅱa级的清醒患者的平均清醒时间为(8.00±4.10)周,MRI分级为Ⅱb级和Ⅲ级的清醒患者的平均清醒时间为(22.67±23.66)周.结论 颅脑损伤长期意识障碍患者的头颅MRI分级与患者的清醒时间及预后有关,应用MRI分级可客观、准确的预测患者的预后.     

依达拉奉对颅脑损伤病人脑水肿及预后的影响

目的探讨依达拉奉对颅脑损伤病人脑水肿及预后的影响。方法采用随机双盲平行对照试验,98例急性颅脑损伤的病人随机分成治疗组50例和对照组48例,对照组按照急性脑损伤常规治疗,治疗组在常规治疗的基础上给予依达拉奉注射液30mg加入生理盐水注射液100ml中静滴,bid,共14d。2组在治疗后3、7、14、28d做头部CT检查,根据脑CT显示脑水肿最大层面的长×宽测算脑水肿面积表示脑水肿的程度,观察脑水肿的变化。于治疗前和治疗后28d分别进行格拉斯哥昏迷评分(GCS)。结果2组病人伤后脑水肿均逐渐加重而至第7d达高峰期,在第7d前2组脑水肿变化比较无统计学意义(P>0.05)。从第14～28d2组病人均明显减轻,但治疗组脑水肿减轻程度明显优于对照组(P<0.01);2组在第28dGCS评分均有提高,但治疗组GCS评分明显高于对照组(P<0.05)。依达拉奉治疗期间未发现明显不良反应。结论依达拉奉可以减轻颅脑损伤病人脑水肿,并能改善预后,无明显不良反应。     

Effect of methylphenidate on ICU and hospital length of stay in patients with severe and moderate traumatic brain injury

OBJECTIVE: Traumatic brain injury is one of the major causes of death and disability among young people. Methylphenidate, a neural stimulant and protective drug, which has been mainly used for childhood attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, has shown some benefits in late psychosocial problems in patients with traumatic brain injury. Its effect on arousal and consciousness has been also revealed in the sub-acute phase of traumatic brain injury. We studied its effect on the acute phase of moderate and severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) in relation to the length of ICU and hospital admission. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Severely and moderately TBI patients (according to inclusion and exclusion criteria) were randomized to treatment and control groups. The treatment group received methylphenidate 0.3mg/kg per dose PO BID by the second day of admission until the time of discharge, and the control group received a placebo. Admission information and daily Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) were recorded. Medical, surgical, and discharge plans for patients were determined by the attending physician, blinded to the study. RESULTS: Forty patients with severe TBI (GCS = 5-8) and 40 moderately TBI patients (GCS = 9-12) were randomly divided into treatment and control groups on the day of admission. In the severely TBI patients, both hospital and ICU length of stay, on average, were shorter in the treatment group compared with the control group. In the moderately TBI patients while ICU stay was shorter in the treatment group, there was no significant reduction of the period of hospitalization. CONCLUSION: There were no significant differences between the treatment and control groups in terms of age, sex, post resuscitation GCS, or brain CT scan findings, in either severely or moderately TBI patients. Methylphenidate was associated with reductions in ICU and hospital length of stay by 23% in severely TBI patients (P = 0.06 for ICU and P = 0.029 for hospital stay time). However, in the moderately TBI patients who received methylphenidate, there was 26% fall (P = 0.05) only in ICU length of stay.     

额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的危险因素分析

目的 探讨不同类型外伤性额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的危险因素,首次CT表现能否预示恶化发生的风险.方法 回顾性分析36例没有弥散性脑损伤或颅内血肿而CT表现额叶脑挫裂伤的头部外伤病例.分析额叶脑挫裂伤类型（根据CT扫描结果）,格拉斯哥昏迷评分（GCS）,病情恶化的时间和预后（GOS）.结果 20例单侧额叶脑挫裂伤的病例都恢复良好;10例局限性双侧额叶脑挫裂伤仅5例恢复良好;6例广泛性双侧额叶脑挫裂伤中的4例伤后24h病情仍恶化,其中1例死亡.结论 脑水肿尤其延迟效应是额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的主要危险因素.首次CT扫描所示脑挫裂伤的类型可以用来预示恶化发生的风险,双侧广泛性额叶脑挫裂伤恶化的危险性很高.     

Which CT features help predict outcome after head injury?

BACKGROUND: Information collected at baseline can be useful in predicting patient outcome after head injury. The appearance of the CT brain scan may add useful baseline information. The aim of this study was to evaluate which features on the admission CT scan might add significantly to other baseline clinical information for predicting survival in patients with head injury. METHODS: Baseline CT scans were reviewed for patients with all grades of traumatic head injury in a head injury registry, in which baseline demographic and injury status and outcome at 1 year were recorded. Details from the CT scan on haemorrhage, brain swelling, and focal or diffuse damage were noted blind to clinical or outcome information and the scans classified according to the simple seven point grading (normal, mild, moderate, or severe focal injury, mild, moderate, or severe diffuse injury). An existing CT scoring system, the trauma coma databank (TCDB) classification, was also used. Logistic regression modelling was used to test the value of the CT appearance, in addition to the other baseline clinical characteristics, in predicting survival at 1 year. RESULTS: 425 CT scans were read from patients with all severities of injury. Significant independent outcome predictors were age, Glasgow coma score (GCS), pupil reaction, presence of subarachnoid blood, and the simple grading of the overall appearance of the scan (all p<0.001). The TCDB classification was not a significant predictor of outcome. CONCLUSION: Age, GCS, and pupil reaction were all previously shown to be significant predictors of patient survival after head injury. A further two, easy to identify, CT scan variables are independent prognostic variables, and might help to identify patients at high risk of death at the time of admission.