Influence of oxytocin on parenting behaviors and parent–child bonding: A systematic review

Oxytocin (OT) plays a pivotal role in early parent–child relationship formation and bonding that is critical for the social, cognitive, and emotional development of the child. Therefore, this systematic review aims to consolidate all available evidence regarding the associations of parental OT concentration levels with parenting behavior and bonding within the past 20 years. A systematic search was conducted in five databases from 2002 to May 2022, and 33 studies were finalized and included. Due to the heterogeneity of the data, findings were presented narratively based on the type of OT and parenting outcomes. Current evidence strongly suggests that parental OT levels are positively related to parental touch and parental gaze and affect synchrony and observer-coded parent–infant bonding. No gender difference in OT levels was observed between fathers and mothers, but OT strengthens affectionate parenting in mothers and stimulatory parenting in fathers. Child OT levels were also positively associated with parental OT levels. Family and healthcare providers could encourage more positive touch and interactive play between parent and child to strengthen parent–child relationships.     

Parenting and psychosocial development of IVF children: a follow-up study

BACKGROUND: This report details a follow-up study of the parent-child relationship and the child's psychosocial development after IVF. The pilot study compared 31 IVF families and 31 families with a naturally conceived child when the children were aged 2 years. Twenty-seven IVF and 23 control families participated again when the children were aged 8-9 years. METHODS: Fathers and mothers completed questionnaires assessing parenting variables and the child's behaviour. For most children, behavioural ratings were also obtained from the child's teacher. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between IVF and control parents' reports of child behaviour, parenting behaviour, parenting stress and most of the parenting goals. The parenting goal adjustment was significantly more important for IVF than for control fathers; religion was more important for IVF than for naturally conceiving mothers. Teacher ratings of the child's behaviour did not differ significantly between the IVF and control groups. All couples but one had talked to other persons about the IVF conception; 75% of the IVF parents had not yet informed their children. IVF parents who had informed their child observed more (internalizing and for fathers also overall) problem behaviours in their child, compared with IVF parents who had not yet disclosed the IVF conception. CONCLUSIONS: Parenting and the children's psychosocial development do not differ significantly between IVF families and control families.     

Parenting Stress and Child Adjustment: Some Old Hypotheses and New Questions

Individual differences in parenting stress, experienced by most parents as those aversive feelings that are associated with the demands of the parenting role, have been shown to be an important aspect of parent, child, and family functioning. A definition of parenting stress is provided, along with its application to more general stress models. Three implicit hypotheses in much of the past research on parenting stress and behavior are evaluated: (a) parenting stress is causally related to poor parenting, (b) poor parenting is causally related to problems in child adjustment, and (c) parenting behavior mediates the associations between parenting stress and child adjustment. In addition, three questions for future research regarding within-family and within-Individual variation in parenting stress are raised: (a) Is parenting stress genetically influenced? (b) Do mothers and fathers show similar or different levels of parenting stress? (c) Is parenting stress “child specific” within families?     

Predictors of parenting behavior trajectories among families of young adolescents with and without spina bifida

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the utility of familial and parental variables in predicting trajectories of parenting behaviors among families of young adolescents with and without spina bifida (SB). METHOD: Sixty-eight families with a child with SB and a demographically matched comparison group (CG) of 68 families of an able-bodied child participated. Observational and questionnaire assessments of parenting behavior were collected via home visits at three time points, as were reports of parent and family functioning. RESULTS: Family conflict was negatively associated with adaptive parenting behavior at Time 1 (T1), but positively associated with adaptive parenting change. Although the direction of this effect was the same across both groups, findings were more robust for the SB sample. Among fathers of children with SB, parenting stress was positively associated with adaptive parenting at T1 but negatively associated with adaptive parenting change. In contrast, within the CG, paternal parenting stress was negatively associated with adaptive parenting at T1 but showed no enduring negative effects in longitudinal analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Family conflict and parenting stress were significant predictors of parenting behaviors and longitudinal parenting change. Findings are interpreted within a developmental context such that variables associated with maladaptive (or adaptive) parenting in the short run, may facilitate adaptive (or maladaptive) parenting over time based on young adolescents' changing developmental needs.     

Determinants of parenting stress in home apnea monitoring

Studied mothers of 30 infants who suffered an apneic episode and were subsequently placed on home apnea monitors, using measures of parenting stress, family resources and support, family coping activities, health locus of control, and maternal coping style involving preferences for information under threat. Comparison groups included mothers of 30 infants with mild congenital heart lesions and 30 mothers of normal healthy infants. Home monitoring was associated with increased levels of parenting stress; monitored infants were perceived as more demanding, and their mothers reported less attachment to the child. However, the magnitude of the differences between mothers of monitored and unmonitored infants was relatively small, and parenting stress outcome was more closely related to preexisting levels of family resources than to the child's health status. No significant relationship was found between stress outcome and family coping or maternal coping style.     

The role of fathers in toddlers' unintentional injury risk

OBJECTIVES: Previous work suggests that maternal parenting and supervision reduces risk for children's unintentional injuries, but very little research has examined the role of fathers in children's unintentional injury risk. The role of fathers in protecting children from unintentional injury was considered. METHODS: A prospective longitudinal design predicted injury risk in 181 toddlers from the ages of 6 to 36 months. Predictor variables included child gender and temperament, individual difference factors of the mother and father, and parenting factors of the mother and father. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression models suggested that fathers' report of gains to the family from their employment was the strongest predictor of risk of children's unintentional injury. Several other paternal and maternal factors were also modestly related to injury risk. CONCLUSIONS: Data indicate the need to consider the role of fathers in protecting children from unintentional injuries.     

Psychological distress of fathers attending an Australian early parenting service for early parenting difficulties

Background: Early parenting centres are in a unique position to identify and provide support to fathers experiencing mental health difficulties. However, the extent to which fathers attending these services experience mental health difficulties is not known. This study aimed to assess fathers' mental health, identify specific clinical profiles based on the severity and pattern of self‐reported symptoms of depression, stress, anxiety, and fatigue and identify factors associated with poorer mental health. Methods: Participants were 144 fathers admitted to a residential programme. Socio‐demographic information and symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, and fatigue were collected using standardised instruments. Results: The proportion of fathers reporting distress in the clinical ranges for stress, anxiety, and depression were 17%, 6%, and 9%, respectively. Latent class analysis identified two distinct groups or clinical profiles of fathers, representing mild (84%) and high distress (16%). Poor physical health, severity of child's sleep disruption, low socio‐economic position, and poor self‐care were associated with high distress. Conclusions: Fathers attending early parenting services are at risk of experiencing significant levels of distress, anxiety, stress, and fatigue. Early Parenting Services can play a critical role in screening and identifying fathers experiencing poor mental health and link them into appropriate mental health support.     

两岁儿童抑制行为的相关父母教养因素

目的：考察父母教养因素与2岁儿童行为抑制性和非抑制性的关系。方法：采用实验室观察法，测查122名两岁儿童的行为抑制性特征；并使用父母抚养行为问卷（CRPR），考察与儿童抑制－非抑制行为有关的父母抚养因素，结果：两岁儿童的抑制－非抑制特征与父母的教养态度有一定的相关。母亲对行为抑制儿童既关心，又采用较多的惩罚方式，对他们的独立性要求不高，父亲对抑制儿童的成就要求就高，惩罚也较多，对于非抑制儿童，母亲鼓励他们的独立精神，给予的保护较少，父亲对他们的惩罚和拒绝也最少。     

幼儿母亲育儿压力的特点及其与婚姻质量的关系

目的：考察幼儿母亲育儿压力的特点及其与婚姻质量间的关系，为改善婚姻质量，提高养育成效提供依据。方法：采用育儿压力问卷和婚姻质量问卷，对在北京市4所普通幼儿园中随机抽取的535名幼儿的母亲进行调查并做出统计分析。结果：2岁儿童的母亲由于儿童适应问题所引起的压力感明显高于5岁儿童的母亲：不同教育水平的母亲育儿压力存在显著差异：婚姻质量对母亲育儿压力的不同侧面影响不同，对母亲侧面影响更明显。结论：孩子年龄不同、受教育水平不同的母亲育儿压力存在显著差异：不同婚姻质量组母亲育儿压力存在显著差异。     

Parental management of fear in chronically ill and healthy children

This study was undertaken to determine the impact of children's health status on parental management of fear and avoidance, as well as the relationship between parenting strategies and children's fear and anxiety levels. Thirty-one children with a chronic life-threatening illness, 30 children with chronic non-life-threatening conditions, and 28 healthy children, and their mothers, were studied. Children's health status, by diagnosis, was not a significant determinant of maternal fear-management strategies. For chronically ill children, clinical health status, in terms of illness course, prognosis, physical impairment, and time since diagnosis were related to maternal parenting strategies and to children's levels of medically related fears. For the sample as a whole, maternal fear-management strategies were related to child sex, socioeconomic status, and mothers' trait anxiety. These results are discussed in terms the interactive effects of child characteristics, health status, fear/anxiety, and parenting strategies.     

Effects of paternal depression on fathers' parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review

One possible mechanism for the familial transmission of depression is through its negative effects on parenting and the parent–child relationship. Although previous research indicates that depression is associated with parenting impairment for mothers, no quantitative synthesis of the empirical literature on the effects of paternal depression on fathers' parenting has been conducted. The present meta-analysis examined the effects of paternal depression on fathers' positive and negative parenting behaviors. The mean effect sizes, computed using 40 independent effect sizes derived from 28 published and unpublished studies, indicated that paternal depression has significant, though small, effects on parenting, with depressed fathers demonstrating decreased positive and increased negative parenting behaviors. Several moderating effects were found, including child and father age, and sample race/ethnicity, and effects were comparable for studies that used self-report measures and observational methods to assess fathers' parenting behaviors. Moreover, effect sizes for the relationship between paternal depression and fathers' parenting behaviors were comparable to those found for mothers. The present findings indicate that paternal depression has a significant and deleterious effect on parenting behaviors by fathers, and speak to the importance of continuing to include fathers in research on child development and the family environment.     

Brief report: fathering a child living with HIV/AIDS: psychosocial adjustment and parenting stress

OBJECTIVE: To examine the psychosocial stressors experienced by fathers of children diagnosed with HIV/AIDS. METHODS: Thirty-one fathers whose children (ages 6 to 19) were participating in pediatric HIV clinical trials completed self-report measures of parenting stress, psychological distress, and need for psychosocial services. RESULTS: Over half of this sample experienced significantly elevated levels of both parenting stress and psychological distress compared to standardized norms. Ninety-seven percent of these men reported the need for services including gender-specific support groups, assistance with discipline, disease management, and assistance with planning for the future. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated levels of parenting stress and psychological distress in fathers of children living with HIV suggest the need for additional psychological intervention in this population.     

Childhood illness-related parenting stress: the pediatric inventory for parents

OBJECTIVE: To develop a measure of parenting stress related to caring for a child with an illness and to evaluate its psychometric properties with a group of parents of children with cancer. METHODS: One hundred twenty-six parents (105 mothers, 21 fathers) of children (65 boys and 61 girls, M: age: 12.75 years) being followed by an oncology service were assessed using the 42-item self-report Pediatric Inventory for Parents (PIP). Internal consistency was assessed and construct validity was investigated with standardized, general self-report measures of anxiety and parenting stress. RESULTS: Internal consistency reliability for the PIP was high (Cronbach alpha range:80-.96). PIP scores were significantly correlated with a measure of state anxiety and also with parenting stress, demonstrating construct validity. After we controlled for demographic variables and general parenting stress, PIP scores showed strong independent associations with state anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary data indicate that the PIP is a reliable and valid tool to assess parenting stress in pediatric oncology populations. As a measure of illness-related parenting stress, the PIP may be used to provide information about parent well-being that extends beyond that obtained from general measures.     

Longitudinal relations between child vagal tone and parenting behavior: 2 to 4 years

The longitudinal relations between physiological markers of child emotion regulation and maternal parenting practices were examined from 2 to 4 years of age. At Time 1, cardiac vagal tone was assessed for one hundred four 2-year-olds (54 females); their mothers completed an assessment of parenting styles. Two years later, at Time 2, 84 of the original participants were reassessed on measures of cardiac vagal tone and parenting style. Results indicated both baseline cardiac vagal tone and maternal parenting practices to be stable from 2 to 4 years of age. Children's cardiac vagal tone predicted specific parenting practices from the toddler to preschool years. Further, child cardiac vagal tone moderated maternal restrictive-parenting practices from 2 to 4 years of age; mothers of children who were highly or moderately physiologically dysregulated were more likely to report restrictive parenting practices at both 2 and 4 years of age.     

Single parents of children with chronic illness: an understudied phenomenon

OBJECTIVE: To examine the chronic illness literature and evaluate the impact on single parenting and children and adolescents with chronic illness. METHODS: We conducted literature reviews of relevant research pertaining to single-parent families on PubMed, Medline, and PsychINFO and also surveyed pertinent book chapters and all of the articles from the Journal of Pediatric Psychology since 1987 for articles, specifically examining the potential associations of single (lone) parenting versus two-parent households on children's psychosocial functioning and the impact of the child's illness on caregiver functioning. RESULTS: While the literature has examined and discussed the stressors associated with parenting a child with an illness, including the impact of illness on finances, family roles, and caregiver burden, few studies have examined single parents of children and adolescents with chronic illnesses and related stressors stemming from being a lone caregiver. CONCLUSIONS: There is a dearth of studies examining the association between lone parenting and psychosocial functioning among children and adolescents with chronic illnesses. Specific questions necessitating future investigation are summarized and recommendations are made for future research in this important area of inquiry.     

The relationship of parental overprotection, perceived child vulnerability, and parenting stress to uncertainty in youth with chronic illness

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship of parent-reported overprotection (OP), perceived child vulnerability (PCV), and parenting stress (PS) to youth-reported illness uncertainty, and to explore potential developmental differences. METHOD: Eighty-two children and 82 adolescents (n = 164) diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM1) or asthma, completed a measure of illness uncertainty, while their parents completed measures of OP, PCV, and PS. RESULTS: After controlling for demographic and illness parameters, both PCV and PS significantly predicted youth illness uncertainty in the combined sample. Within the child group, only PS significantly predicted illness uncertainty, whereas only PCV significantly predicted uncertainty for adolescents. CONCLUSION: Specific parenting variables are associated with youth-reported illness uncertainty; however, their relationship varies according to developmental level. Although OP has been identified as a predictor of child psychological outcomes in other studies, it does not appear to be associated with illness uncertainty in youth with DM1 or asthma.     

Interactions between child behavior patterns and parenting: implications for children's unintentional injury risk

OBJECTIVES: Two factors were considered as predictors of children's risk for unintentional injury: (a) children's temperamentally difficult behavior patterns and (b) parenting. Along with hypotheses to replicate previous univariate effects, it was hypothesized that active, involved parents with sufficient time resources might reduce injury risk among temperamentally at-risk children. METHODS: Study 1 used a retrospective design with a diverse sample of over 10,000 5-year-olds. Study 2 replicated Study 1 using a prospective design and behavioral data from a sample of over 1,000 children followed from 6 to 36 months of age. RESULTS: In Study 1, male gender, child hyperactivity, and family poverty predicted injury in a univariate manner. In Study 2, male gender and lack of positive parenting predicted injury in a univariate manner. Interaction effects also emerged: in Study 1 the interaction between child hyperactivity and parental time resources protected children from injury, and in Study 2 the interaction between child's difficult temperament and positive parenting protected children from injury. CONCLUSIONS: Children at increased risk for injury, i.e., those with hyperactive and difficult behavior patterns, might be protected in the environment of positive parenting. Theoretically, results suggest that researchers should consider Temperament x Environment interactions along with univariate predictors of outcome behavior. From an applied perspective, results have implications for the design of injury prevention campaigns: Parents who spend positive time with temperamentally difficult children might protect them from injury.     

Impact on maternal parenting stress of receipt of genetic information regarding risk of diabetes in newborn infants

Our objective was to investigate whether notification of high-risk status for type 1 diabetes in newborn infants results in an increased maternal-parenting stress level when compared with notification of low-risk status for type 1 diabetes. Maternal parenting stress level was assessed at 5–7 weeks postpartum (baseline) and was reassessed 4–5 months after parents were informed of their newborn infants' genetic screening results (follow-up). Parenting stress level was measured using the total stress score (TSS) of the Parenting Stress Index/Short Form. The outcome variable, change in TSS, was calculated by subtracting the baseline TSS from the follow-up TSS. Demographic variables such as maternal race, maternal age, maternal education level, maternal marital status, child's birth order, and total family income were assessed through a structured phone interview at the time of baseline assessment. The risk factor of interest was the child's human leukocyte antigen (HLA) status for type 1 diabetes, i.e., whether child was at a high or moderate (combined into “high”) genetic risk or at a low genetic risk for type 1 diabetes. A sample of 88 mothers (23 with a high-risk child and 65 with a low-risk child) was evaluated. Baseline median TSSs were 65 and 74 for mothers of low-risk infants and mothers of high-risk infants, respectively. Both groups' median TSS decreased between baseline and follow-up. No significant differences were found between change in TSS and maternal age, race, education level, marital status, total family income, or child's birth order. Although the median decrease in TSS was smaller in mothers with a high-risk child when compared with mothers of a low-risk child, this difference was not statistically significant. We did not find an association between newborn's HLA status and change in maternal TSS. The results of this study suggest that notification of high-risk status for type 1 diabetes in newborn infants may not result in an increased level of parenting stress among mothers. Am. J. Med. Genet. 86:219–226, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: a meta-analysis

Theoretical models emphasize the role of parenting in the development and maintenance of child anxiety, but reviews of the empirical literature have provided mixed support for existing theories. To help clarify the role parenting plays in childhood anxiety, we conducted a meta-analysis of 47 studies testing the association between parenting and child anxiety. Across these studies, parenting accounted for only 4% of the variance in child anxiety. Moderator tests indicated that methodological factors (i.e., how child anxiety and parenting were conceptualized and assessed) may be a source of inconsistent findings within the literature. In addition, our analyses revealed that parental control was more strongly associated with child anxiety than was parental rejection. Specific subdimensions within parental rejection and control differed in their association with child anxiety (e.g., autonomy-granting accounted for 18% of the variance, but warmth <1%), indicating that efforts to disaggregate parenting dimensions may inform theory development and future research. Overall, however, the modest association between parenting and child anxiety suggests that understanding the origins of children's anxiety will require identifying factors other than parenting that account for the bulk of the variance.     

Relation of positive and negative parenting to children's depressive symptoms.

This study examined the combined and cumulative effects of supportive-positive and harsh-negative parenting behaviors on children's depressive symptoms. A diverse sample of 515 male and female elementary and middle school students (ages 7 to 11) and their parents provided reports of the children's depressive symptoms. Parents provided self-reports of supportive-positive and harsh-negative parenting behaviors. Structural equation modeling indicated that supportive-positive and harsh-negative parenting behaviors were nearly orthogonal dimensions of parenting and both related to children's depressive symptoms. Supportive-positive parenting behaviors did not moderate the relation between harsh-negative parenting behaviors and children's depressive symptoms. Results have implications for family intervention and prevention strategies.