吸入麻醉药心肌保护临床应用进展

大量的动物研究显示,除了对心肌的间接保护作用,吸入麻醉药还具有直接的对抗心肌缺血损伤的作用.这可能为临床提供了一种预防围手术期缺血心肌功能紊乱的技术.吸入麻醉药预处理、后处理技术应用于临床,可能会改善缺血/再灌注心肌的功能,并最终提高患者的愈后.吸入麻醉药心肌保护临床实验研究较少,现主要讨论近几年吸入麻醉药预处理临床应用的进展.     

吸入麻醉药心肌预处理的信号转导机制

吸入麻醉药预处理有IPC样的心肌保护作用,其作用机制目前尚未完全阐明。吸入麻醉药预处理的信号转导机制可能与IPC的信号转导途径相似,吸入麻醉药可能刺激心肌产生触发因子,然后启动级联反应,激活效应因子,发挥预处理效应。目前为止,研究已证实ROS、G蛋白耦联受体、蛋白激酶、线粒体和肌膜KATP通道（Mito KATP and Sarc KATP）介导APC。现就吸入麻醉药心肌预处理信号转导机制方面的最新进展作一综述。     

吸入麻醉药预处理对心肌保护的作用机制

吸入麻醉药对心肌具有预处理作用,这为术中心肌保护的研究和应用提供了新的方向.目前有关吸入麻醉药预处理的机制尚未完全阐明,本文简要综述了吸入麻醉药在ATP敏感性钾通道开放、细胞膜受体-抑制性G蛋白-PKC信号通路激活、心肌微血管保护等方面的研究进展.     

麻醉药心肌保护的线粒体K(ATP)通道机制

线粒体膜ATP敏感性钾通道(mitoKATP)在心肌缺血预处理及麻醉药预处理中起重要作用，mitoKATP通道的开放可能是预处理心肌保护作用的最终效应器。麻醉药通过活化或抑制mitoKATP通道活性而影响预处理的心肌保护作用。     

麻醉药心肌保护的线粒体KATP通道机制

线粒体膜ATP敏感性钾通道(mitoKATP)在心肌缺血预处理及麻醉药预处理中起重要作用，mitoKATP通道的开放可能是预处理心肌保护作用的最终效应器。麻醉药通过活化或抑制mitoKATP通道活性而影响预处理的心肌保护作用。     

乳化异氟醚预处理对兔缺血再灌注心肌血流动力学的影响

近年来研究表明吸入麻醉药异氟醚可模拟缺血预处理发挥心肌保护作用，减轻再灌注期心肌功能抑制。以脂肪乳为载体静脉注射的乳化异氟醚可产生麻醉作用，但是否也具有心肌保护作用，尚无报道。为了进一步研究乳化异氟醚预处理对心肌缺血的保护效应，本实验在兔心肌缺血再灌注模型上测定不同时点血流动力学的有关指标，旨在探讨乳化异氟醚预处理对兔缺血再灌注心肌的血流动力学影响。     

吸入麻醉药预处理的心肌保护机制

吸入麻醉药对心肌具有预处理作用,这为围手术期心肌保护的研究和应用提供了新方法.目前有关吸入麻醉药预处理的机制尚未完全阐明,此文综述了吸入麻醉药在活性氧产生、细胞内信号转导、ATP敏感性钾通道开放及细胞凋亡通路调节等方面的研究进展.     

吸入异氟醚或地氟醚预处理对心内直视手术小儿围术期心肌的保护作用

吸入性麻醉药具有与缺血预适应相仿的效应,使心肌梗死范围减小,产生直接的心脏保护作用,这种现象称之为“吸入性麻醉药预处理”。异氟醚和地氟醚是卤族氟类吸入麻醉药,在临床麻醉上广泛使用,特别是用于小儿的麻醉诱导和维持。但异氟醚或地氟醚预处理对小儿围术期心肌的保护作用尚未定论,本研究拟观察吸入异氟醚或地氟醚预处理对体外循环(CPB)下心内直视手术小儿围术期心肌的保护作用。     

吸入麻醉药预处理对心肌保护的作用机制

吸入麻醉药对心肌具有预处理作用，这为术中心肌保护的研究和应用提供了新的方向。目前有关吸人麻醉药预处理的机制尚未完全阐明，本文简要综述了吸人麻醉药在ATP敏感性钾通道开放、细胞膜受体一抑制性G蛋白-PKC信号通路激活、心肌微血管保护等方面的研究进展。     

七氟醚在不停跳冠脉搭桥病人心肌保护效果优于异丙酚

大量的离体和在体动物实验都证实卤代吸入麻醉药对缺血心肌具有保护作用。吸入麻醉药可促进缺血后心肌功能的恢复和减少心肌梗死面积。其机制有模拟缺血预处理的作用。静脉麻醉药如异丙酚无此种心肌保护作用的特性。其机制尚未阐明,但     

吸入麻醉药预处理对心肌缺血"第二保护窗"的作用机制

Volatile anesthetic preconditioning can elicit acute and delayed (also called as "second window") myocardial protection,and the latter may be more clinicaUy significant in decreasing the risk of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury for patientswith cardiovascular disease.The "second window" protection might be achieved by stimulating myocardium to trigger adenosine and nitric oxide release,passing through protein kinase C and nuclear factor-κB signal transduction pathways,activating the ATP-sensirive potassium channel and reactive oxygen species as the final effectors,presenting a delayed myocardial protective effect.This review summarizes the latest studies about volatile anesthetic preconditioning-induced "second window" protection.     

Isoflurane does not produce a second window of preconditioning against myocardial infarction in vivo

The administration of a volatile anesthetic shortly before a prolonged ischemic episode exerts protective effects against myocardial infarction similar to those of ischemic preconditioning. A second window of preconditioning (SWOP) against myocardial infarction can also be elicited by brief episodes of ischemia when this occurs 24 h before prolonged coronary artery occlusion. Whether remote exposure to a volatile anesthetic also causes delayed myocardial protection is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that the administration of isoflurane 24 h before ischemia produces a SWOP against infarction. Barbiturate-anesthetized dogs (n = 25) were instrumented for measurement of hemodynamics, including aortic and left ventricular (LV) pressures and LV +dP/dt(max), and subjected to a 60-min left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion followed by 3 h of reperfusion. Myocardial infarct size and coronary collateral blood flow were assessed with triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining and radioactive microspheres, respectively. Two groups of dogs received 1.0 minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration isoflurane for 30 min or 6 h that was discontinued 30 min (acute) or 24 h (delayed) before ischemia and reperfusion, respectively. A control group of dogs did not receive isoflurane. Infarct size was 27% +/- 3% of the LV area at risk in the absence of pretreatment with isoflurane. Acute, but not remote, administration of isoflurane reduced infarct size (12% +/- 1% and 31% +/- 3%, respectively). No differences in hemodynamics or transmural myocardial perfusion during or after occlusion were observed between groups. The results indicate that isoflurane does not produce a SWOP when administered 24 h before prolonged myocardial ischemia in vivo. IMPLICATIONS: Isoflurane mimics the beneficial effects of ischemic preconditioning by protecting myocardium against infarction when it is administered shortly before a prolonged ischemic episode. However, unlike ischemic preconditioning, isoflurane does not produce a second window of protection 24 h after administration in dogs.     

糖尿病与吸入性麻醉药心肌保护作用研究新进展

目前研究表明,对于心肌缺血/再灌注(isehemic/reperfusion,I/R)损伤,适当的刺激可以激活机体的内源性保护机制,即缺血预处理(ischemic preconditioning,IPC)和缺血后处理(ischemic postconditioning,I-post),最终达到心肌保护效果.同时现有的研究发现,吸人性麻醉药同样可以诱导产生内源性的心肌保护作用,其作用机制及临床应用前景成为目前广泛关注的焦点,现就以七氟醚为代表的吸入性麻醉药的心肌保护作用及糖尿病与吸人性麻醉药心肌保护作用的关系作一简要综述.     

Isoflurane produces delayed preconditioning against myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury: role of cyclooxygenase-2

BACKGROUND: Whether volatile anesthetics produce a second window of preconditioning is unclear. The authors tested the hypothesis that isoflurane causes delayed preconditioning against infarction and, further, that cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 mediates this beneficial effect. METHODS: Rabbits (n = 43) were randomly assigned to receive 0.9% intravenous saline, the selective COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib (3 mg/kg intraperitoneal) five times over 2 days before coronary artery occlusion and reperfusion, or isoflurane (1.0 minimum alveolar concentration) 24 h before acute experimentation in the absence or presence of celecoxib pretreatment. Two additional groups of rabbits received a single dose of celecoxib either 30 min before or 21.5 h after administration of isoflurane. Rabbits were then instrumented for measurement of hemodynamics and underwent 30 min of coronary occlusion followed by 3 h of reperfusion. Myocardial infarct size was measured using triphenyltetrazolium staining. Western immunoblotting to examine COX-1 and COX-2 protein expression was performed in rabbit hearts that had or had not been exposed to isoflurane. RESULTS: Isoflurane significantly (P < 0.05) reduced infarct size (22 +/- 3% of the left ventricular area at risk) as compared with control (39 +/- 2%). Celecoxib alone had no effect on infarct size (36 +/- 4%) but abolished isoflurane-induced cardioprotection (36 +/- 4%). A single dose of celecoxib administered 2.5 h before coronary occlusion and reperfusion also abolished the delayed protective effects of isoflurane (36 +/- 4%), but celecoxib given 30 min before exposure to isoflurane had no effect (22 +/- 4%). Isoflurane did not alter COX-1 and COX-2 protein expression. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the volatile anesthetic isoflurane produces a second window of preconditioning against myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury. Furthermore, COX-2 is an important mediator of isoflurane-induced delayed preconditioning.     

Anesthetic considerations for aortocoronary bypass graft surgery.

Between 1964 and 1978, aortocoronary bypass graft procedures were performed in more than 300,000 patients, and the number seems to increase every year. Nevertheless, the procedure itself can result in perioperative myocardial infarction leading to death. Greater understanding of and constant attention to the myocardial oxygen (O2) supply and demand may reduce the incidence of perioperative myocardial infarction. Some of the factors influencing supply and demand can be controlled pharmacologically. Drugs such as nitroglycerin, nitroprusside, and propranolol can reduce the myocardial O2 demand. Unfortunately, there are few data to elucidate the relationship between myocardial O2 demand and supply as influenced by anesthetic drugs, especially in patients with myocardial ischemia. However, enthusiasm for aortocoronary bypass graft operations has given enormous impetus to laboratory and clinical studies of this subject. Recent developments in anesthetic management afford better means for protection of the ischemic myocardium during and after operation.     

Organ protection by anesthetics: preface and comments

Numerous investigations have been performed, focusing on the anesthetic toxicity such as hepatotoxity or nephrotoxicity, for more than 40 years. However, recent basic researche has demonstrated several beneficial effects of anesthetics, including organ protection against ischemia and subsequent reperfusion, and anesthetic preconditioning, as well as clarified mechanisms of acute and delayed cell death, and apoptosis. In this special issue, four experts have provided new relevant information concerning brain, heart, lung, and liver protection by anesthetics, respectively.     

Myocardial protection by anesthetic agents against ischemia-reperfusion injury: An update for anesthesiologists

PURPOSE: The aim of this review of the literature was to evaluate the effectiveness of anesthetics in protecting the heart against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. SOURCE: Articles were obtained from the Medline database (1980-, search terms included heart, myocardium, coronary, ischemia, reperfusion injury, infarction, stunning, halothane, enflurane, desflurane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, opioid, morphine, fentanyl, alfentanil sufentanil, pentazocine, buprenorphine, barbiturate, thiopental, ketamine, propofol, preconditioning, neutrophil adhesion, free radical, antioxidant and calcium). PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Protection by volatile anesthetics, morphine and propofol is relatively well investigated. It is generally agreed that these agents reduce the myocardial damage caused by ischemia and reperfusion. Other anesthetics which are often used in clinical practice, such as fentanyl, ketamine, barbiturates and benzodiazepines have been much less studied, and their potential as cardioprotectors is currently unknown. There are some proposed mechanisms for protection by anesthetic agents: ischemic preconditioning-like effect, interference in the neutrophil/platelet-endothelium interaction, blockade of Ca2+ overload to the cytosolic space and antioxidant-like effect. Different anesthetics appear to have different mechanisms by which protection is exerted. Clinical applicability of anesthetic agent-induced protection has yet to be explored. CONCLUSION: There is increasing evidence of anesthetic agent-induced protection. At present, isoflurane, sevoflurane and morphine appear to be most promising as preconditioning-inducing agents. After the onset of ischemia, propofol could be selected to reduce ischemia-reperfusion injury. Future clinical application depends on the full elucidation of the underlying mechanisms and on clinical outcome trials.     

Delayed anesthetic preconditioning protects against myocardial infarction via activation of nuclear factor-κB and upregulation of autophagy

Purpose

Delayed volatile anesthetic preconditioning (APC) can protect against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury; the delayed phase is called the second window of protection (SWOP), but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is involved in the myocardial protection conferred by APC in the acute phase; autophagy has been reported to confer apoptosis inhibition and infarction reduction. We hypothesized that APC initiates delayed cardioprotection against I/R injury via the activation of NF-kB and upregulation of autophagy, thus attenuating the inflammatory response and apoptosis

Methods

After a rat I/R model was set up, left ventricular samples were obtained before I/R to assess NF-κB-DNA binding activity and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) and cathepsin B protein expression, and to examine autophagosomes with a transmission electron microscope. Infarct size and the expressions of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and caspase-3 were measured at the end of 2-h reperfusion.

Results

The infarct size was significantly reduced in the SWOP group (30 ± 3 %) when compared with that in the I/R group (47 ± 7 %, P < 0.05), and this finding was associated with increased NF-κB-DNA binding activity and autophagosomes. In addition, the expressions of LC3-II and cathepsin B were also up-regulated, and the expressions of TNF-α, IL-1β, and caspase-3 were attenuated in the SWOP group when compared with the findings in the I/R group. However, this protection was abolished by the administration of parthenolide (PTN) before sevoflurane inhalation, which resulted in an infarct size that was significantly increased (47 ± 5 %, P < 0.05 PTN + SWOP vs. SWOP group).

Conclusion

Delayed APC protected the rat heart from I/R injury. The underlying mechanisms may include NF-κB activation, upregulation of autophagy, and the attenuation of TNF-α, IL-1β, and caspase-3 expressions.     

Inhaled sevoflurane produces better delayed myocardial protection at 48 versus 24 hours after exposure

Ischemia preconditioning produces a delayed window of cardioprotection against subsequent ischemia and reperfusion injury. Contradictory results have been reported regarding the ability of inhaled anesthetics to produce similar effects. Our investigation was designed to test whether inhaled sevoflurane is capable of producing a delayed window of anesthetic preconditioning and to compare the differences at 24 and 48 h after exposure. Male Fischer-344 rats, 2-4 mo old, were exposed to sevoflurane (2.5% for 60 min). Twenty-four or 48 h after exposure, the hearts were isolated and perfused for 30 min (equilibration) followed by 25 min of ischemia and then 60 min of reperfusion. Control hearts received no treatment before ischemia. Left ventricular (LV) function, creatine kinase (CK), and infarct size (IS) were measured. Nuclear magnetic resonance was used to measure Na+(i), [Ca2+]i, and pH(i). There was improved LV function and significant reduction in IS and CK and in both the 24- and 48-h delayed groups compared with the controls. There was also a significant recovery of LV function and reduction in IS and CK in the 48-h group when compared with the 24-h group. There was significant adenosine triphosphate preservation in both the 24- and 48-h groups, as well as a significant reduction in acidosis, [Ca2+]I, and Na+(i) in response to ischemia in both the groups versus the control. Sevoflurane is capable of producing a delayed window of preconditioning, and it takes more than 24 h to produce maximal protective effects.     

Myocardial protection with monophosphoryl lipid-A against aortic cross clamping-induced global stunning

BACKGROUND: Monophosphoryl lipid-A (MLA) has a late window (24 hours) of cardioprotection against acute myocardial infarction. It is not known whether MLA, administered, 24 hours before surgery, attenuates intraoperative ventricular dysfunction "stunning" associated with aortic cross-clamping and reperfusion during elective cardiac surgery. We determined the dose-response relationship between MLA and ventricular function in a canine model of global myocardial stunning in the absence of necrosis. The role of expression of inducible heat shock protein 70 (HSP 70i) was also investigated. METHODS: Mongrel dogs (n = 32) were intravenously injected with either a vehicle solution or 3, 5, 10, 35 ug/kg MLA. Twenty four hours later, dogs were anesthetized and instrumented, in situ, to monitor the left ventricular performance (the slope of regression between stroke-work and end diastolic length). Tissue samples were obtained to determine HSP70i using immunoblot analysis. After a period of equilibration on cardiopulmonary bypass, the aortic cross-clamp was applied at normothermia for 30 minutes followed by 60 minutes of reperfusion. ATP and catabolites were determined in transmural myocardial biopsies. Triphenyl-tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining was used to determine myocardial necrosis. RESULTS: MLA treatment did not alter myocardial contractility or ATP metabolism. Global ischemia resulted in about 50% depletion of ATP and remained depressed during reperfusion in all groups. MLA-treated hearts had improved functional recovery in a dose dependent-manner. Significant recovery was observed at the highest dose (35 ug/kg) compared to the control group. Immunoblot analysis demonstrated significant increase in HSP 70i in the MLA-treated hearts. CONCLUSIONS: MLA exhibits a delayed (24 hours) window of protection against myocardial stunning associated with aortic cross-clamping. HSP70i expression may play a role in MLA-mediated cardioprotection.