Pressure ulcer prevention in palliative care 1: results of a UK survey

Pressure ulcer prevention is an important aspect of palliative care nursing. This article reports part 1 of the results of a postal questionnaire survey of all 206 palliative care inpatient units listed in the St Christopher's' information service hospice directory. The key areas surveyed were current pressure ulcer prevention policies in use in UK palliative care units and current practice in relation to pressure ulcer risk assessment. Issues arising from these results are also discussed: the key elements of a pressure ulcer policy and the role and timing of pressure ulcer risk assessment.     

Nurses' attitudes, behaviours and perceived barriers towards pressure ulcer prevention

Background. Pressure ulcers are not a plague of modern man; they have been known to exist since ancient Egyptian times. However, despite the increasing expenditure on pressure ulcer prevention, pressure ulcers remain a major health care problem. Although nurses do not have the sole responsibility for pressure ulcer prevention, nurses have a unique opportunity to have a significant impact on this problem. Aims and objectives. The specific aims of the study were to identify: ? Staff nurses’ attitudes towards pressure ulcer prevention. ? The behaviour of staff nurses’ in relation to pressure ulcer prevention. ? Staff nurses’ perceived barriers towards pressure ulcer prevention. Design. A cross‐sectional survey method was used. Methods. A randomly selected sample of staff nurses (n = 300) working in an acute care setting in an urban location was invited to participate. Data were collected using a prepiloted questionnaire. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version 10 and SPSS Text Smart version 1.1. Results. The nurses surveyed demonstrated a positive attitude towards pressure ulcer prevention. However, prevention practices were demonstrated to be haphazard and erratic and were negatively affected by lack of time and staff. These barriers prevented the nurses’ positive attitude from being reflected into effective clinical practice. Education, although poorly accessed, or made available, was rarely cited as impeding practice in this area. Conclusion. This study suggests that positive attitudes are not enough to ensure that practice change takes place, reinforcing the complex nature of behavioural change. Implementation strategies should introduce ways in which key staff can be empowered to overcome barriers to change. Relevance to clinical practice. This study provides a unique exploration of Irish nurses’ attitudes, behaviours and perceived barriers towards pressure ulcer prevention, thereby contributing to the body of knowledge on this subject. As tissue viability is a new and emerging speciality, this information will contribute to evidence based practice in this area of patient care and will form the basis for the development of an educational strategy for pressure ulcer prevention and management.     

Preventing and managing heel pressure ulceration: an overview

Heel pressure ulcers are the second most common site for pressure ulceration; although their assessment and treatment can be complex, and they often require additional consideration over and above core principles of pressure ulcer prevention and management. Recent international pressure ulcer prevention and treatment guidelines developed jointly in Europe and the USA have provided greater clarity by achieving international consensus on how to care for patients at risk of heel pressure ulceration, and also on the management of such patients if a pressure ulcer develops. Health professionals should embrace these guidelines and embed them in their everyday clinical practice and within local guidance and protocols to ensure that patients are provided with evidence-based care supported by international collaboration and agreement.     

Pediatric skin care: guidelines for assessment, prevention, and treatment

The review of literature suggests the pediatric population is at risk for skin breakdown and therefore pressure ulcer development. The literature reveals limited information on pediatric skin care issues in comparison to the adult population. The prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers and maintenance of skin integrity in the pediatric population often is not a high priority especially in the critically ill child. Research has demonstrated that children differ from adults in the anatomical sites of skin breakdown; however, treatment remains the same. It is important to have an understanding of the underlying physiology of ulcer formation, the factors responsible for ulcer development, and the factors that put infants and children at risk for developing pressure ulcers. Accurate assessment, documentation, prevention, and treatment are all key factors.     

Nurses’ pressure ulcer related judgements and decisions in clinical practice: A systematic review

BackgroundPressure ulcers are considered to be an adverse outcome of care that should never occur in clinical practice. The formation of a pressure ulcer is also perceived to be an indicator of poor quality nursing care. Therefore, pressure ulcer prevention is a priority for nurses, healthcare professionals and healthcare organisations throughout the world. A key factor in pressure ulcer prevention and management is individual nurse decision making.ObjectivesTo synthesise the literature on the judgement and decision making of nurses in relation to the assessment, prevention, grading and management of pressure ulcers in all care settings (hospital and community).DesignA systematic search of published literature relating to judgement and decision making in nurses, with a focus on the prevention and management of pressure ulcers.MethodsA search of electronic databases from 1992 to present, together with hand searching of the reference lists of retrieved publications, to identify published papers that reported results of studies evaluating the decision making of nurses in relation to the prevention and management of pressure ulcers. Abstracts were independently reviewed by two authors and full text of potentially relevant articles retrieved. Each paper included in this systematic review was evaluated using recognised appraisal criteria relevant to the specific study design. Included papers provided empirical data on key aspects of nurses’ pressure ulcer related judgements and decision making. Data were synthesised into themes using narrative analysis.ResultsSixteen studies and one systematic review were included in the review, focusing on pressure ulcer risk assessment, pressure ulcer prevention, grading of pressure ulcers and treatment decisions. The results indicated that assessment tools were not routinely used to identify pressure ulcer risk, and that nurses rely on their own knowledge and experience rather than research evidence to decide what skin care to deliver.ConclusionsEmphasising pressure ulcer risk assessment and pressure ulcer grading in clinical practice is unlikely to deliver improved outcomes. Further research into nurses’ pressure ulcer related judgements and decision making is needed and clinicians must focus on the consistent delivery of high quality care to prevent and mange pressure ulcers to all patients in clinical practice.     

伤口护理虚拟学组组织架构和工作模式探讨

目的探讨伤口护理虚拟学组组织架构和工作模式及其工作效果。方法以伤口护理中心为实体,吸收全院压疮发生高危科室的护理骨干,组成伤口护理虚拟学组,确立了4级管理组织架构及其小组工作模式。2007年5月至2008年12月以压疮预防为“攻关”课题,进行了工作效果的观察。结果虚拟学组干预后2008年Braden计分表和减压床垫的使用率比2007年明显增加,护士的压疮预防知晓率和预防措施正确率明显提高;压疮发生率明显下降（P〈0．01）。结论4级管理组织架构是伤口护理虚拟学组良性运行的基础,多学科小组工作模式有助于压疮预防新理念、新方法快捷地在全院推行,提高了压疮预防护理的效果。     

预防压疮实行全面质量管理

目的:探讨预防压疮实行全面质量管理在提高护士高危压疮风险上报符合率、减少院内高危压疮发生、降低压疮漏报率及提高预防压疮护理质量中的作用和效果。方法:将预防压疮实行全面质量管理后上报的高危压疮风险280例及压疮305例设为观察组,将预防压疮实行全面质量管理前上报的高危压疮风险225例及压疮220例设为对照组。比较两组高危压疮风险上报符合例数、发生压疮例数及压疮护理质量情况。结果:与对照组相比,观察组的高危压疮风险上报符合例数提高,高危压疮发生例数减少,压疮漏报例数降低,预防压疮护理质量显著提高。结论:预防压疮实行全面质量管理有助于提高护士准确预测高危压疮风险和准确评估压疮的能力,减少院内高危压疮发生,提高预防压疮护理质量。     

Skin Integrity in the Pediatric Population: Preventing and Managing Pressure Ulcers

purpose . To summarize clinical and empirical knowledge about pressure ulcers in infants and children and to describe an approach developed at Children's Hospital, Boston, to prevent and manage pressure ulcers
population . Acutely ill children with potential or actual alteration in skin integrity due to pressure ulcers
conclusions . The three-pronged approach for pressure ulcer prevention and management developed by the Skin Care Task Force at the Children's Hospital, Boston, decreases unnecessary variation in practice surrounding the prevention and care of pressure ulcers in acutely ill children.
practice implications . The Skin Care Task Force recommends use of the Braden Q for pediatric risk assessment, a skin care algorithm for prevention of pressure ulcers, and a pressure ulcer algorithm for staging and managing pressure ulcers.     

规范化压疮管理体系的建立及应用

目的：构建规范化的压疮护理管理体系,并评价其应用效果。方法：自2013年起,成立皮肤治疗小组,分析压疮管理存在的问题,建立三级压疮监控管理组织和评估制度,完善上报、会诊和考评制度,形成了一套规范化的压疮管理体系。结果：2013-2015年3年院外带入压疮治愈/好转率分别为60.69%、71.73%和82.31%;2013-2015年压疮风险评估准确率、压疮预防措施正确率、压疮评估准确率、压疮护理措施正确率和患者满意率均呈现逐年升高趋势,差别均有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。结论：规范化压疮管理体系的建立,使压疮管理科学化、规范化,提高了压疮治愈效果,保障护理措施落实到位,提高了压疮护理质量和管理水平。     

落实个体化流程管理 提升老年股骨骨折压疮预防护理质量

目的 评价个体化护理流程在老年股骨骨折压疮预防中的临床效果。方法 对160例在住院期间有发生压疮危险的老年股骨骨折患者进行观察分析,选取二病区患者80例,作为对照组,给予常规护理,采用执行医嘱和级别护理;选取一病区患者80例,作为观察组,落实个体化流程管理,切实实施压疮预防护理流程,根据风险分级评分分级护理,进行压疮风险告知和宣教。对两组的压疮发生、患者的配合和满意度进行比较。结果 两组患者的压疮发生情况、配合比及满意度均有显著性差异。结论 落实个体化流程管理,使用压疮分级护理,可使老年患者压疮明显减低,取得患者的配合,提高患者的满意度,提升专科护理质量。     

Pressure ulcer prevention in nursing homes: views and beliefs of enrolled nurses and other health care workers

Background. In the Netherlands much attention has been paid to pressure ulcer prevention. National guidelines on pressure ulcer prevention were developed in 1985 and adapted in 1992 at the request of a national organization for quality assurance in health care. Several studies indicate that nurses seem to be insufficiently informed about pressure ulcer preventive activities. There is, however, no information available about the reasons why nurses seem to be insufficiently informed. Aims and objectives. This study was planned to elucidate the views and beliefs of health care workers (especially enrolled nurses) in Dutch nursing homes about pressure ulcer prevention and about issues related with pressure ulcer prevention. Design. A qualitative study with semi‐structured, tape‐recorded interviews. Method. Interviews were conducted with enrolled nurses, team leaders, head nurses, staff nurses and physicians. The interviews were coded and analysed. Results. Analysis of the interviews revealed that today's pressure ulcer preventive activities are very much based on old traditions in nursing. It also showed that enrolled nurses have no intention to change the care they deliver with regard to pressure ulcer prevention. Conclusions. It is concluded that a systematic approach is necessary to change nursing thinking and acting with regard to pressure ulcer prevention. Relevance to clinical practice. This study gives an overview of the views and beliefs of health care workers (especially enrolled nurses) in Dutch nursing homes about pressure ulcer prevention. These views and beliefs can be used as a starting point for effective implementation of guidelines regarding the prevention of pressure ulcers.     

Spinal cord injury and pressure ulcers

The SCI person is at high risk for pressure ulcers; thus, pressure ulcer prevention is a critical component of care. Guidelines exist to promote evidenced-based practice for the prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers in the SCI. There is a discrepancy between what persons with SCI know about pressure ulcer prevention and what they are doing to reduce their risk of developing this serious complication. Objective data demonstrate that adherence to a skin care regimen contributes to the prevention of pressure ulcers. Knowledge about pressure ulcer prevention and treatment must be appropriately focused for the patient, family, and the health care team and must be reinforced over time.     

皮肤压疮管理流程的设计与应用

目的降低皮肤压疮的漏报率,加强护士对患者皮肤评估及护理重要性的认识,提高对皮肤压疮的防治效果。方法将质量持续改进与业务流程有机结合,制定了皮肤压疮管理流程。对化疗患者的皮肤损伤以及压疮高危因素进行评估并制定对策,对院外患者带入的大面积压疮进行及时会诊,采取有效的护理措施;细化质量控制标准,将皮肤压疮管理纳入病房管理中。结果提高了护士预防皮肤压疮的意识和护理能力,对皮肤压疮管理流程的知晓率达100%;对压疮发生高危因素评估表的掌握率从原来的40%提高到90%;压疮基础护理合格率达100%,医院内可避免压疮发生率为零。结论应用皮肤压疮管理流程,可以提高护士的参与意识和质量意识,提高其对患者皮肤压疮防治的效果。     

规范化压疮护理体系的构建

目的构建规范化压疮护理体系。方法在循证的基础上运用德尔菲法对专家进行两轮函询,以确定规范化压疮护理体系。结果通过两轮函询,形成了包含4个一级条目、23个二级条目和85个三级条目的规范化压疮护理体系。两轮专家函询的权威系数为0.91和0.92,两轮函询后各级条目的专家协调系数为0.251~0.465。结论基于循证和德尔菲法构建的规范化压疮护理体系,具有系统性、科学性和实用性,为压疮的护理提供了指导意见。     

Performance indicators--a quest to improve patient care

Nurses working in the field of tissue viability constantly strive to improve pressure ulcer prevention and management in their clinical areas, knowing that pressure ulcers cause pain and suffering to patients while costing the NHS millions of pounds to treat. The aim of this initiative was for the tissue viability team to develop an audit tool based on recently devised performance indicators. The purpose of the audit was to provide the mechanism for reviewing the quality of everyday care. The tool utilizes the 'traffic light' system to categorize the results. The initiative has improved clinical outcomes for patients and increased the awareness, education, knowledge and confidence of nurses in pressure ulcer prevention and management across a combined primary and secondary care Trust.     

压疮防范管理程序的软件开发与应用研究

目的规范压疮防范管理流程,提高压疮防护质量和管理成效。方法 2010年6月由计算机管理中心和临床护理资讯团队、医惠科技有限公司成员组成课题小组,开发研制"压疮防范管理程序软件"。设立压疮风险识别、压疮评估、防护指南、伤口会诊、质量监控和统计查询模块。软件应用期间,观察护士高危压疮风险评估、压疮评估和防范措施正确率,统计院内压疮发生率及24h申报率和压疮治愈率。结果压疮防范管理程序软件应用后,护士对压疮风险评估、压疮评估和防范措施落实的准确性都得到提升,分别提高至95.92%、96.57%和94.88%;院内压疮发生率下降至1.94%,24h院内压疮申报率提高至91.25%,压疮治愈率提高至88.66%。结论压疮防范管理程序软件促进了压疮防范管理流程的科学化和标准化,提高了压疮的防护质量和管理成效,保障了患者安全。     

Pressure Ulcer Update for Primary Care

Many consider pressure ulcers a problem only for long-term care or acute care. Yet many people are admitted to the acute care setting with a pressure ulcer that has occurred while they are residing at home. For the nurse practitioner in primary care, recognizing the alterable causes of a pressure ulcer and implementing corrective action may prevent the development of a pressure ulcer or halt the progression of a pressure ulcer before a patient requires complex management, including debridement and possible hospitalization.     

Prevention of Pressure Ulcers in the Surgical Patient

Pressure ulcers (PUs) are a serious health care problem, and it is crucial to assess how patients acquire pressure ulcers after admission to a health care facility. In the OR, factors related to positioning, anesthesia, and the duration of surgery, in addition to patient-related factors, all can affect PU development.This article reviews current practices, including AORN recommended practices, regarding pressure ulcer prevention efforts for surgical patients.All surgical patients should be considered at-risk for pressure ulcer development; therefore, perioperative departments should develop and implement strategic plans for pressure ulcer prevention. AORN J 89 (March 2009) 538-548. © AORN, Inc, 2009.     

压疮管理流程的建立与应用

目的降低住院患者压疮的发生率。方法于2002年建立并实施高危压疮筛查-高危压疮预报-压疮预防-压疮护理会诊-护理质量考评的压疮管理流程。结果住院患者压疮发生率明显降低(P<0.01),护理人员预防压疮的意识提高。结论压疮管理流程的实施能有效降低住院患者压疮的发生。     

Continuous monitoring of interface pressure distribution in intensive care patients for pressure ulcer prevention

Title.  Continuous monitoring of interface pressure distribution in intensive care patients for pressure ulcer prevention.
Aim.  This paper is a report of a study conducted to examine whether continuous interface pressure monitoring of postoperative patients in an intensive care unit is feasible in clinical practice.
Background.  The interface pressure between skin and surfaces is generally evaluated for pressure ulcer prevention. However, the intensity and duration of interface pressure necessary for pressure ulcer development remains unclear because the conventional interface pressure sensors are unsuitable for continuous monitoring in clinical settings.
Methods.  A total of 30 postoperative patients in an intensive care unit participated in this study in 2006–2007. A sensor was built into a thermoelastic polymer mattress. The whole-body interface pressure was recorded for up to 48 hours. Pressure ulcer development was observed during the morning bed-bath. For analysis, the intensity and duration of the maximal interface pressure was evaluated.
Findings.  The mean age of the study group was 62·0 ± 15·4 years. Two participants developed stage I pressure ulcer and blanchable redness at the sacrum. The longest duration of pressures greater than 100 mmHg were 487·0, 273·5 and 275·7 minutes in the pressure ulcer, blanchable redness and no redness groups respectively.
Conclusion.  Continuous monitoring of the intensity and duration of whole-body interface pressure using the KINOTEX sensor is feasible in intensive care patients.