Insulin treatment of the insulin-dependent diabetic patient undergoing minor surgery

In a prospective randomised study in 20 insulin-dependent diabetics who had minor surgery under general anaesthesia we compared the metabolic responses to intravenous glucose-insulin-potassium infusion with those who had conventional subcutaneous insulin administration. The former treatment resulted in lower blood glucose levels both during the infusion period (p less than 0.05) as well as the entire observation period (operative, first and second postoperative days; p less than 0.01). More blood glucose values were within the intended range of 5 to 10 mmol/litre in the glucose-insulin-potassium as compared to the conventional group (48% versus 24%; p less than 0.01). The levels of lactate, 3-hydroxybutyrate, glycerol, alanine, glucagon, insulin and growth hormone did not differ between the two groups. The infusion regimen resulted in better glycaemic control both peri-and postoperatively than the conventional subcutaneous insulin regimen in insulin-dependent diabetic patients who have minor surgery.     

胰岛素泵在肝移植术后糖代谢异常的应用研究

目的探讨肝移植围手术期糖代谢异常的不同处理方法。方法肝移植手术后糖代谢异常患者27例,随机分为连续皮下胰岛素输注组（Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion,CSII）与多次皮下注射胰岛素组（Multiple daily subcutaneous injection,MDSI）。对两组患者住院期间的血糖控制情况、血糖达标时间、院内感染率、伤口愈合时间、胰岛素用量、低血糖的发生率以及术后半年的糖代谢状态进行比较。结果两组患者血糖均可以达到目标值,CSII组较MDSI组每天胰岛素用量少,血糖达标时间短,切口愈合时间短,院内感染率低。两组患者术后半年的糖代谢状态无显著差异。结论对肝移植术后糖代谢异常的控制,胰岛素泵较传统的多次皮下注射胰岛素更有优势。     

Effect of peritonitis on insulin and glucose absorption during peritoneal dialysis in diabetic rats

The intraperitoneal route is frequently used for the administration of insulin in diabetic continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients. However, there is conflicting evidence as to whether the dosage of intraperitoneal insulin should be increased or decreased during peritonitis in these patients. Glucose and insulin absorption and glycaemic control were evaluated in 2-hour exchanges using 15 ml of 2.5% dextrose dialysis solution in diabetic rats with (group 1) and without (group 2) peritonitis. Fasting blood glucose values at the beginning of the study exchanges were mean +/- SD 17.9 +/- 3.3 mmol/l in group 1 and 18.2 +/- 3.5 mmol/l in group 2. Even though group 1 had a higher percentage absorption of dialysate glucose (65 +/- 19 vs. 47 +/- 7%; p less than 0.05) and higher percentage absorption of dialysate insulin (49 +/- 12 vs. 44 +/- 14%; p less than 0.1), the hypoglycaemic response to the standard intraperitoneal dose of insulin was similar in each group. Plasma C peptide levels remained very low in both groups, thus excluding significant endogenous release of insulin. These data indicate that peritonitis per se does not change intraperitoneal insulin requirements during standardized peritoneal dialysis exchanges in diabetic rats. Insulin requirements may also be unaltered during peritonitis in diabetic continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients, provided that dialysate glucose load and oral carbohydrate intake are kept constant.     

Conventional insulin vs insulin infusion therapy in acute coronary syndrome diabetic patients

AIM:To evaluate the impact on glucose variability(GLUCV)of an nurse-implemented insulin infusion protocol when compared with a conventional insulin treatment during the day-to-day clinical activity.METHODS:We enrolled 44 type 2 diabetic patients(n=32 males;n=12 females)with acute coronary syndrome(ACS)and randomy assigned to standard a subcutaneous insulin treatment(n=23)or a nurse-implemented continuous intravenous insulin infusion protocol(n=21).We utilized some parameters of GLUCV representing well-known surrogate markers of prognosis,i.e.,glucose standard deviation(SD),the mean dailyδglucose(mean of daily difference between maximum and minimum glucose),and the coefficient of variation(CV)of glucose,expressed as percent glucose(SD)/glu-cose(mean).RESULTS:At the admission,first fasting blood glucose,pharmacological treatments(insulin and/or anti-diabetic drugs)prior to entering the study and basal glycated hemoglobin(HbA1c)were observed in the two groups treated with subcutaneous or intravenous insulin infusion,respectively.When compared with patients submitted to standard therapy,insulin-infused patients showed both increased first 24-h(median 6.9 mmol/L vs 5.7mmol/L P0.045)and overall hospitalizationδglucose(median 10.9 mmol/L vs 9.3 mmol/L,P0.028),with a tendency to a significant increase in first 24-h glycaemic CV(23.1%vs 19.6%,P0.053).Severe hypoglycaemia was rare(14.3%),and it was observed only in 3 patients receiving insulin infusion therapy.HbA1c values measured during hospitalization and 3 mo after discharge did not differ in the two groups of treatment.CONCLUSION:Our pilot data suggest that no real benefit in terms of GLUCV is observed when routinely managing blood glucose by insulin infusion therapy in type 2 diabetic ACS hospitalized patients in respect to conventional insulin treatment     

Evaluation of the effect of gain on the meal response of an automated closed-loop insulin delivery system

A continuous closed-loop insulin delivery system using subcutaneous insulin delivery was evaluated in eight diabetic canines. Continuous glucose profiles were obtained by extrapolation of blood glucose measurements. Insulin delivery rate was calculated, using a model of beta-cell insulin secretion, and delivered with a Medtronic MiniMed subcutaneous infusion pump. The model acts like a classic proportional-integral-derivative controller, delivering insulin in proportion to glucose above target, history of past glucose values, and glucose rate of change. For each dog, a proportional gain was set relative to the open-loop total daily dose (TDD) of insulin. Additional gains based on 0.5 x TDD and 1.5 x TDD were also evaluated (gain dose response). Control was initiated 4 h before the meal with a target of 6.7 mmol/l. At the time of the meal, glucose was similar for all three gains (6.0 +/- 0.3, 5.2 +/- 0.3, and 4.9 +/- 0.5 mmol/l for 0.5 x TDD, TDD, and 1.5 x TDD, respectively; P > 0.05) with near-target values restored at the end of experiments (8.2 +/- 0.9, 6.0 +/- 0.6, and 6.0 +/- 0.5, respectively). The peak postprandial glucose level decreased significantly with increasing gain (12.1 +/- 0.6, 9.6 +/- 1.0, and 8.5 +/- 0.6 mmol/l, respectively; P < 0.05). The data demonstrate that closed-loop insulin delivery using the subcutaneous site can provide stable glycemic control within a range of gain.     

持续皮下注射胰岛素治疗糖尿病高血糖危象效果观察

目的 探讨持续皮下注射胰岛素治疗糖尿病高血糖危象的疗效和护理方法.方法 将53例因高血糖危象急诊住院治疗的糖尿病患者分为两组.泵组(20例)使用胰岛素泵持续皮下注射胰岛素;小剂量组(33例)静脉滴注小剂量胰岛素,血糖控制后改为胰岛素餐前皮下注射.连续10 d后评价效果.结果 两组均可迅速降低高血糖(均P＞0.05);泵组降糖更稳定(均P＜0.01),但低血糖发生率显著高于小剂量组(P＜0.05).结论 持续皮下注射胰岛素能迅速降低血糖,可使血糖维持在较稳定水平;充分补液和严密监测血糖变化可望降低低血糖发生率,提高治疗安全性.     

Target ranges and the apparent compliance with tight glycaemic control

We performed a retrospective audit of blood glucose control after introducing a new protocol for insulin infusion. The audit showed a sustained reduction in the median blood glucose, which decreased from 7.0 to 6.8 mmol x l(-1), primarily because of a reduction in the proportion of values above 6 mmol x l(-1). When we examined the proportion of readings with previously published 'acceptable' ranges we found that small, probably clinically insignificant, changes in the accepted range have a major effect on apparent compliance with glycaemic control. This is because a large number of results fall within a narrow range of values. As a result there is a nearly 2.5-fold difference in compliance for a change in the upper limit of the target range of just 2.2 mmol x l(-1). Different target ranges have been recommended for tight glycaemic control. When comparing compliance with tight glycaemic control between intensive care units, target ranges should be identical.     

强化胰岛素治疗对外科重症患者预后的影响

目的 探讨不同血糖控制水平对外科重症患者炎症反应及预后的影响。方法 将188例术后入加强治疗病房（ICU）的APACH Ⅱ〉10分的重症患者随机分为血糖严格控制组（4．4～6．1mmol／L,n=75）、控制组（6．7～8．3mmol／L,n=75）和对照组（10．0～11．1mmol／L,n=38）。使用计算机程序化血糖管理方案控制血糖至目标水平,记录各组术后第1、4、7天血清C反应蛋白（CRP）,呼吸机使用天数、感染发生率、术后红细胞输注量、住ICU费用、住ICU天数、住院病死率等。结果 两血糖控制组红细胞输注及感染发生率均低于对照组（P〈0．05）。与对照组相比,严格控制组呼吸机使用天数及住ICU天数明显缩短（P〈0．05）。在住院病死率、住ICU费用方面,严格控制组与其他两组比较,亦有降低（P〉0．05）。低血糖发生率（〈3．3mmol／L）,严格控制组仍明显高于其他两组（P〈0．05）。结论 应激后控制血糖于正常可能更有利于改善外科重症患者预后,减少住ICU天数与费用。对于确定最佳的目标血糖,还需进一步的相关研究。     

胰岛素泵治疗小儿1型糖尿病的临床研究

目的探讨胰岛素泵治疗小儿1型糖尿病的疗效。方法将1型糖尿病患儿随机分成胰岛素泵治疗组和每日多次皮下注射胰岛素组,比较两组的疗效。结果胰岛素泵治疗组餐后血糖、胰岛素用量、治疗时间、低血糖发生次数与每日多次皮下注射胰岛素组相比差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论胰岛素泵治疗可更快更好地控制高血糖,减少低血糖的发生。     

Peri-operative management of patients with diabetes mellitus

Patients with diabetes mellitus are routinely encountered in anaesthetic practice. Peri-operative maintenance of good glycaemic control to avoid metabolic decompensation and its sequelae is considered to be the ideal, as they have a worse surgical outcome. In addition to routine anaesthetic assessment, patients with diabetes should be assessed pre-operatively for macrovascular complications (ischaemic heart disease, peripheral vascular disease, cerebrovascular disease) and microvascular complications (nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy) of diabetes, along with a review of overall glycaemic control. For elective surgery, patients with poor metabolic control should receive intensive glucose management. For major operations, patients will require an intravenous insulin infusion for which several regimens are currently used in clinical practice. The two most popular methods are: (1) the ‘sliding scale’ and (2) the GIK (glucose–insulin–potassium) infusion. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages, but for more complex surgery the ‘sliding scale’ method is more flexible. Minor surgery should not require the use of intravenous insulin infusions since these patients may be managed by adjustments in their usual dose of insulin or oral hypoglycaemic agents. In specific operative procedures, e.g. cardiothoracic surgery, major hyperglycaemic excursions have been shown to occur highlighting the need for stringent blood glucose monitoring.     

Predicting insulin requirements for a portable insulin pump using the Biostator. Evidence for reversible insulin resistance in poorly controlled type I diabetics

Glycemic control was achieved in 14 patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) by 36-48-h treatment with a recently marketed clinical model, Biostator glucose controller (Life Science Instruments, Miles Laboratories, Elkhart, Indiana). Control was maintained by continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion with a portable pump, programmed using infusion profiles from the Biostator. Control of glycemic excursion with the Biostator was variable among patients. This control, reflected by the M-value or a blood glucose index (mean of pre-, peak, and 2-h postmeal levels for four meals) of each patient, correlated directly with their prior glycemic control, as assessed by hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) level (r = 0.66, P less than 0.01 and r = 0.82, P less than 0.005, for M-value and blood glucose index, respectively). Total insulin infused by the Biostator/24 h overpredicted the subcutaneous infusion dose required on day 2 of pump treatment (183 +/- 11%, P less 0.001). Therefore, these data were not used to program the portable pump. Instead, total insulin dose was estimated using a dietary glucose/insulin (G/I) ratio. This ratio, derived from dietary total available glucose, urine glucose, and insulin dose/24 h during depot insulin treatment, accurately estimated total insulin for pump infusion (97 +/- 4%). The basal infusion rate of the Biostator between 2400 and 0600 h also exceeded the subcutaneous infusion requirement and was reduced to 40% for the initial pump basal rate. The remainder of the insulin (total minus basal) was distributed as premeal boluses according to the Biostator infusion profile for meals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Influence of acute glycaemic level on measures of myocardial infarction in non-diabetic pigs

Abstract>

Objective. Patients with diabetes are at increased risk of experiencing myocardial infarction. The influence of the prevailing plasma glucose level on infarction and mortality after acute ischaemia is however unknown. The aim was to study the effect of the acute plasma glucose level on the myocardial infarction size in a closed-chest pig model. Design. 38 non-diabetic pigs were randomised to hypoglycaemic (1.8–2.2 mmol/l; n = 15), normoglycaemic (5–7 mmol/l; n = 12) or hyperglycaemic glucose clamping (22–23 mmol/l; n = 11). After 30 min within glucose target myocardial infarction was induced for 30 min followed by reperfusion for 120 min. Hereafter the heart was double-stained to delineate infarction from viable tissue within the area at risk. Results. Mean infarction size was 201 ± 35 mm² (mean ± SEM) in the hypoglycaemic group, 154 ± 40 mm² in the normoglycaemic group and 134 ± 40 mm² in the hyperglycaemic group, with no differences in infarction size, infarct/area at risk ratio or troponin T levels between the groups. There was no difference in incidence of ventricular fibrillation or mortality between the groups. Conclusion. No statistically significant associations were observed between the acute glycaemic level and measures of myocardial infarction, rates of ventricular fibrillation and subsequent premature death in the setting of acute ischaemia and reperfusion.     

胰岛素泵持续皮下输注与多次皮下注射胰岛素强化治疗2型糖尿病的疗效比较

目的观察胰岛素泵持续皮下注射胰岛素及多次皮下注射胰岛素对2型糖尿病的治疗疗效及安全性。方法80例2型糖尿患者住院进行两种胰岛素强化治疗：①CSII组：42例;②MSII组：38例。二组治疗血糖控制范刖为3．6～8．2mm01／L（血糖仪测定末梢血）,至少稳定48h。结果两种治疗方法血糖中位数差异有统计学意义（CSII：7．0,MSII：7．8,P〈0．01）,平均高血糖控制天数[CSII：（5．71±1．71）d,MSII：（20．52±7．68）d,P〈0．01],胰岛素用量[CSII（0．61±0．2）U／（kg·d）,MSII：（0．69±0．2）U／（kg·d）,P〈O．01],住院时间[CSII：（12．47±4．42）d,MSII：（31．43±9．47）d,P〈0．01]均有显著性差异;而住院费用[CSII：（2787±1475）元,MSII：（3756±2867）元,P〈0．05]有统计学意义,且CSII组低糖发生率低于MSII组[（0．8±1．2）次／,人VS（1．7±2．3）次／人,P〈0．051。结论CSll治疗较MSII更有效、更便捷地控制高血糖,减少低血糖发生,安全性更高。     

Portable insulin infusion pumps as an alternative means of insulin delivery in type I diabetes. Report on 11 patients

In many cases of type I diabetes it is extremely difficult to maintain adequate long-term diabetic control. Over the last decade a better understanding has been gained of the relationship between hyperglycaemia and the onset of diabetic microvascular disease. Because of this new techniques are being developed to improve diabetic control; one of these is the use of portable 'open loop' insulin infusion pumps. The results achieved in the first 11 patients to use the Auto-Syringe AS-6C insulin infusion pump on an outpatient basis for longer than 4 months are described. A highly significant improvement in fasting blood glucose levels, 2-hour postprandial blood glucose levels, mean blood glucose levels, glycosylated haemoglobin levels and mean glycaemic excursions was noted in all patients. No cutaneous complications developed despite the use of indwelling subcutaneous needles for up to 4 days at a time. Patient acceptability was excellent and none of the patients had any problems in adapting to 24-hour pump use. The importance of correct patient selection and continuous home blood glucose monitoring is stressed. Insulin infusion pumps can provide an alternative and highly efficacious means of maintaining excellent diabetic control in a select group of type 1 diabetics. However, it is essential that the physician be trained in the use of these pumps and that adequate back-up services are available.     

2型糖尿病患者胆道术后的胰岛素强化治疗

目的：探讨胰岛素强化治疗对2型糖尿病患者胆道术后的临床疗效。方法：72例胆道术后合并2型糖尿病患者随机分为强化治疗组和对照组各36例。强化治疗组给予强化胰岛素治疗,使血糖控制在4.4～6.1mmol/L;对照组给予常规胰岛素治疗,使血糖控制在10.0～11.1mmol/L。比较两组空腹血糖（FBG）、炎性指标及预后等。结果：强化治疗组FBG、体温、WBC明显低于对照组,抗生素使用天数、院内感染发生率、重症监护天数及术后并发症明显少于对照组,但低血糖发生率显著高于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论：糖尿病患者胆道术后强化胰岛素治疗,可降低炎性反应,并减少抗生素用量及重症监护天数,降低术后并发症,但低血糖发生率较高。     

Strategies for managing the diabetic patient

Diabetes mellitus is now classified as either ‘type 1’ (failure of endogenous insulin production) or ‘type 2’ (‘insulin resistance’) and can be diagnosed if fasting blood glucose is >6.1 mmol/l (110 mg/dl) on two separate occasions or there is unequivocal hyperglycaemia with acute metabolic decompensation or obvious symptoms. The prevalence of the disease is rising and may be as great as 12–14% in western populations aged over 40 years. Diabetes is complicated by micro- and macrovascular consequences of chronically elevated blood glucose concentrations, and diabetic patients are over-represented in hospital populations, particularly among patients requiring surgical interventions. It is associated with increased perioperative mortality and morbidity. Evidence is now accumulating that intensive glycaemic monitoring and the administration of insulin infusions to achieve tight glycaemic control are associated with an improvement of both perioperative mortality and morbidity.     

Diabetes mellitus and open heart surgery

A method, based on bedside determinations of blood glucose by nursing staff, was designed to control the administration of insulin to diabetic patients during and following open heart surgery. A computer-controlled intravenous infusion pump was used to deliver the insulin. Excellent control of the hyperglycaemia normally associated with open heart surgery was achieved, with 84 percent of measured blood glucose values falling within 2 mmol/litre of the target value of 6 mmol/litre. The method proved to be simple, effective, and safe.     

糖尿病合并胆石症患者术前胰岛素泵强化治疗的临床观察

目的:观察并分析糖尿病合并胆石症患者腹腔镜手术前采用连续皮下胰岛素输注方法(CSII)或多次皮下注射胰岛素方法(MSII)控制血糖的效果,了解胰岛素泵在糖尿病患者手术前使用的价值。方法:162例糖尿病合并胆石症患者随机分为CSII和MSII组。CSII组患者采用经胰岛素泵连续皮下输注胰岛素的治疗方法,MSII组患者采用多次皮下注射胰岛素的治疗方法。胰岛素剂量根据血糖波动曲线调整。比较治疗前后患者的全天血糖变化、血糖达标时间、胰岛素用量及低血糖发生率。结果:两组均可有效降低血糖(P<0.01),但CSII组全天血糖值较MSII组控制更为理想,且胰岛素用量及术前调整时间均少于MSII组。CSII组低血糖发生率低于MSII组。结论:糖尿病合并胆石症患者手术前应用胰岛素治疗降糖效果显著,安全性高。     

门冬胰岛素应用于胰岛素泵对餐后血糖和血糖波动的影响

目的 探讨门冬胰岛素与可溶性人胰岛素在持续皮下胰岛素输注（CSⅡ）中对餐后血糖和血糖波动的影响。方法选择345例2型糖尿病患者,随机以门冬胰岛素（门冬胰岛素组173例）和可溶性人胰岛素（人胰岛素组172例）作为泵用胰岛素进行CSⅡ强化治疗,监测1d9次末梢血糖（三餐前后、22：00、0：00和3：00）,比较两组餐后血糖和血糖波动情况。结果门冬胰岛素组较人胰岛素组对空腹和早、晚餐后血糖控制更好,餐后血糖波动更小,达标时间较短[分别为（4．40±2．16）、（5．68±2．29）d]（P〈0．05）,且低血糖的发生率明显较低（P〈0．05）。结论在CSⅡ强化治疗中,门冬胰岛素可更快、更有效降低血糖,尤其有利于餐后血糖控制和减少整体的血糖波动。