Effects of aerobic exercise and training on the trace minerals chromium, zinc and copper

Aerobic exercise and training lead to numerous changes and/or adaptations in the normal physiological functioning of the body. The trace minerals chromium, zinc, and copper are directly involved in maintaining and regulating many of these physiological processes, especially those involved in normal carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism and the ultimate formation of usable energy. Therefore, it is important to establish whether exercise and training alter the functions of these trace elements, and to determine the overall effects of exercise on nutritional status and physical performance. Exercise results in a marked mobilisation of chromium into circulation, while zinc and copper levels have been shown to either remain stable or increase. Exercise also results in large increases in excretion of chromium, zinc and copper. Urinary chromium excretion has been shown to increase on an exercise day compared with a rest day, while increased zinc losses occur in urine and sweat and increased copper losses occur in urine, and faeces. When exercise-enhanced trace mineral losses are coupled with dietary intakes below the recommended levels, which are commonplace for both sedentary and exercising individuals, the nutritional status and overall health of exercising individuals may be suboptimal. Individuals who train intensively may be at special risk due to repeated increased losses. Trained athletes have lower resting urinary chromium losses, larger increases in urinary chromium losses due to exercise, lower resting serum zinc levels, and possible alterations in copper nutriture compared with sedentary controls. These changes suggest an altered metabolism and/or nutritional status of the trace minerals chromium, zinc, and copper in trained individuals and those who exercise strenuously.     

Le « syndrome des jambes lourdes » chez les athlètes surentraînés est-il le reflet de désordres hémorhéologiques ?Is the feeling of heavy legs in overtrained athletes related to impaired hemorheology?

Introduction. – The aim of this work is to evaluate if the feeling of heavy legs in athletes is correlated with overtraining syndrome-related hemorheological disturbances.Results. – The subjects who quoted the item: “I have the feeling of heavy legs” had higher plasma viscosity and higher red cell aggregation parameters. The overtraining score was correlated positively with plasma viscosity, and aggregability parameters. The feeling of heavy legs was correlated with plasma viscosity and aggregability.Conclusion. – These findings suggest that the feeling of heavy legs in overtrained athletes is related to overtraining syndrome-related hemorheologic disturbances, namely mild plasma hyperviscosity and mild erythrocyte hyperaggregability.     

Les effets indésirables de la créatine exogène: de la fiction à la réalité

Summary

Objectives

For the last six years the consumption of exogenous creatine monohydrate has been extended more and more. Despite numerous publications on the ergogenic effects of this naturally occurring substance, there is almost no information on the deleterious effects of this supplement. The objectives of this review are to point out facts which are often in contradiction with allegations introduced by the media.

Topics

In athletes, exogenous creatine supplements amount to 20 g per day during five days followed by 1 to 10 g per day, every day, for weeks, months, and even years. Usually consumers do not report side-effects, with the exception of body weight increase. However, gastro-intestinal disturbances and muscle cramps have been reported occasionally. Liver and kidney dysfunction have also been hypothesized but real facts are missing for this. From a theoretical point of view, exogenous creatine supplementation suppresses its hepatic synthesis (maximum 2 g per day for vegetarians). Its destination is mainly (95–98%) skeletal muscle and all excess is excreted in urine (on average 60% of the supplement). Scientific publications on the undesirable effects of exogenous creatine are almost non-existent, but newspapers and the media do not hesitate to publish false information or wrong interpretations based on one individual case of an individual with nephropathy who, later on, consumed creatine monohydrate. In addition, we did not find any side-effects on renal function after short-term (five days), medium-term (nine weeks) or long-term (up to five years) creatine supplementation in small cohorts of athletes.

Future prospects

We have no intention to validate or not the supplementation of exogenous creatine by athletes, but apparently there are no real deleterious effects on the body of healthy consumers. Nevertheless, one has to be careful about individual reactions when excess food are taken up. We are convinced that regular biological check-ups are needed to avoid any abnormal reaction under creatine supplementation.     

Fécondité féminine et activité physique intense et répétéeFemale fertility and intensive physical activity

Aims – To estimate the effects of intensive physical activity on female fertility.Current knowledge – Since twenty to thirty years ago, women have regularly participated in intense physical sports. The first Olympic Marathon for women took place at Los Angeles (United-States) in 1984 and many clinical studies concerning the incidence of menstrual disturbances among sportswomen, were concomitant of the dramatic increase in female participation in endurance sports, either as recreational or professional sportswomen. Most of these studies were focused on secondary amenorrhea. Later, etiological studies have shown that a range of disturbances, from an apparently normal menstrual cycle, irregular menstruation, oligomenorrhea to the complete blockage of the ovarian function were observed.Points of views and plans – It is very likely that the physiological process leading to menstrual troubles among sportswomen include disturbances of GnRH pulsatility at hypothalamic level. It has been shown that a session of training at an intensity greater than 60% during at least 40 min leads to the secretion of neuromediators able to interfere with GnRH pulsatility. Repetitiveness of daily sessions of training (i.e., more than five sessions a week) associated with marginal energy intake or strictly vegetarian food may contribute to disturb the hypothalamo-pituitary-ovarian axis in female athletes.     

L''hémorhéologie permet-elle de comprendre le « paradoxe de l''hématocrite » lors de l’entraînement et du surentraînement ?Does hemorheology explain the paradox of hematocrit in training and overtraining?

Purpose. – Doping with EPO increases both hematocrit and performance. On the opposite, training reduces hematocrit due to plasma volume extension and overtraining both increases hematocrit and decreases performance. This apparent paradox seems to be explained by a new concept proposed interpreting the interactions between viscosity factors and blood flow.Facts. – Viscosity factors exert a non linear “all or none” effect that can be described according to the “ percolation theory”. Blood viscosity has no hemodynamic relevance by its own, but viscosity factors (hematocrit, red cell deformability and aggregability, plasma viscosity) can result according to flow conditions in self-potentiating phenomena of quick transition between a state of high fluidity and a state of red cell aggregate clumping. In muscle, this model predicts that: (a) during exercise the only viscosity factor that could influence flow is plasma viscosity; (b) at rest all viscosity factors (including high hematocrit) may induce a self-potentiating “viscidation” process.Conclusion. – According to these concepts, supraphysiologic hematocrit values are probably unable to disturb muscular perfusion at exercise, but are likely to promote self-potentiated stasis at rest and thus to increase the risk of thrombosis.     

Méthodes d'étude de la consommation alimentaire chez les sportifs

In this paper, techniques generally used to assess dietary intakes of athletes — the daily (24-hr) recall, the diet history and the seven-day estimated food record — are critically reviewed. The measurement of the diet of individual has become a prime requisite of the nutritional sciences. Furthermore, recent statistical and technical developments resulted in its more widespread use. The task of analyzing dietary intake has been greatly simplified by computerized nutrient databases. However, as most nutrient analysis computer programs generate printouts that are impressive in appearance, the printouts may gain an unwarranted credibility and precision in the eyes of users.In the seven-day food record, the subjects are asked to weigh, describe and write down all items of food and drink eaten in one week. Records of food consumption can be made with estimated weights of food by measuring the quantity of food eaten using standard cups, teaspoons or tablespoons. It has been usual to ask subjects to keep records, weighed or estimated, for seven days, on the assumption that it is the shortest time necessary to take into account fluctuations in dietary patterns from weekdays to weekend. Since individuals vary markedly from day to day in their intake of foods and nutrients, more than seven days are required to obtain an accurate estimation of dietary energy and micronutrients intake. However food record should not be longer than seven days, since it is the longest time that a subject can be expected to cooperate. This day-to-day variability may adversely affect the statistical accuracy of estimates of intakes and thus it must be taken into consideration in the interpretation of results. Advantages of this technique are: accuracy since the quantity of food eaten or wasted can be weighed, estimation of food eaten does not rely on the subject's memory. Its drawbacks are: since subjects are asked to keep a record of everything they eat, they may alter their normal dietary habits, either to simplify the task, or to try to impress the investigators; its excessive burden on respondents.The daily (24-hr) recall is easier to perform than the seven-day food record but upon questioning subjects can be unable to remember the types and amounts of food the had consumed in the previous 24 hr. Some subjects overestimate their usual intake and some underestimate it. The 24-hr recall cannot accurately evaluate the dietary intake of individuals and it can only measure dietary intake of groups.The diet history uses questioning upon the food ordinarily consumed untill the food consumed is recorded in common household measures. The subject is asked for the frequency and usual size of portions using food models. The interview continues until a complete record has been made of the usual daily intake. The next step, known as the “cross check”, is used to clarify the information about the usual daily intake, by careful questioning about each food group.The choice between the diet recall and the diet record depends on many factors: the area of dietary investigation, the aim of dietary investigation, the number of individuals, etc.In the case of individuals, the aim is to evaluate the dietary intake of energy, macronutrients and micronutrients in order to evaluate if an athlete is at risk for inadequate nutrient intake. The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are often used as the basis for determining whether nutrient intake is adequate. They are standards for nutrient intake designed to meet the nutrient needs of virtually all healthy individuals in our country. Therefore, most people who receive less than the RDA for a specific nutrient may nevertheless meet their own requirement. The diet record should be used to evaluate the dietary intake of athletes in as much as their degree of motivation is high. In the cases of groups, the 24-hr recall should be used although the seven-day food record should give a more accurate evaluation of dietary intake.It has to be concluded that the errors in all methods of dietary assessment are far greater than generally acknowledged. Accumulating evidence suggests that unbiased retrospective estimates of diet are unobtainable. Daily variation is the main factor determining the precision of recording methods of assessing dietary intake.     

Augmentation de la fréquence d’apparition de l’hypoxémie induite par l’exercice chez des rameurs de haut-niveau

Objectifs. – Évaluer la fréquence d’apparition de l’hypoxémie induite par l’exercice (HIE) chez un groupe de rameurs de haut-niveau.Méthodes. – Sept rameurs de haut-niveau ont participé à l’étude (19,14 ± 1,3 ans). Les sujets ont effectué une épreuve d’effort à charge croissante sur un rameur ergométrique lors de laquelle les échanges gazeux et la saturation de l’hémoglobine en oxygène (SpO₂) ont été mesurés.Résultats. – Les sujets avaient une VO₂max de 61,68 ± 1,65 ml/min par kilogramme. Tous ont présenté une HIE avec des chutes de SpO₂ comprises entre 5 et 11 %. Cette chute était significative dès 70 % VO₂max. Le volume d’entraînement réduit des athlètes testés par rapport aux autres athlètes endurants semble indiquer que le phénomène est indépendant du volume d’entraînement.Conclusion. – Cette étude a permis de mettre en évidence que 100 % des rameurs de haut-niveau présentaient une HIE. La limitation ventilatoire et l’importante masse musculaire mise en jeu spécifiques à l’aviron seraient les hypothèses explicatives.Aim. – To access the frequency of exercise-induced hypoxemia (EIH) in elite oarsmen.Method. – Seven elite oarsmen participated (19.14 ± 1.3 year) in this study. Subjects performed an incremental exercise testing on a rowing ergometer. Gas exchanges and pulse oxymetric saturation in oxygen (SpO₂) were measured during exercise.Results. – Subjects exhibited a mean of VO₂max of 61.68 ± 1.65 ml min^–1 kg^–1. All rowers showed an EIH with a SpO₂ ranging between 5% and 11%. This SpO₂ fall was significant from 70% VO₂max. The reduced training volume of our athletes compared with others endurance trained athletes seems indicate that phenomenon is not dependent of training volume.Conclusion. – This study showed that 100% of elite oarsmen exhibit EIH. Mechanical limitation in ventilation and great muscle mass involved in rowing could be the explicative hypothesis.     

Les effets d''une exposition répétée à l''oxygène hyperbare (OHB) sur la performance physique du sportif

Objectifs. – Le but de cette étude a été de vérifier que l'hyperoxie permettait d'augmenter les performance d'un exercice physique.Méthodes. – Vingt-deux sportifs de spécialités différentes, « explosif » (musculation) et « endurance » (cyclisme) ont été étudiés. Les groupes « explosif » et « endurance » comportaient respectivement six sujets hyperoxie + trois contrôles et six sujets hyperoxie + sept contrôles. Douze séances d'entraînement de 90 minutes ont été réalisées : groupe hyperoxie = 100 % d'oxygène à 1,6 b (PO2 = 160 kPa), groupe témoin = pression atmosphérique normale (PO2 = 21 kPa). Des paramètres anthropométriques et biologiques , la force utile maximale (groupe « explosif ») et la VO2 max (groupe « endurance ») ont été mesurés avant et après les 12 séances. L'évolution des puissances développées à la fréquence cardiaque correspondant au seuil de 4 mmol d'acide lactique a été suivie dans le groupe « endurance ».Résultats. – Il n'existait pas de différence significative entre les groupes pour les paramètres anthropométriques, sanguins et la VO2 max. Le groupe « explosif » hyperoxie présentait à la fin des séances, une force utile maximale plus importante (p = 0,03) que celle des témoins. Le groupe « endurance » présentait une augmentation plus importante (p < 0,05) des puissances sous-maximales que le groupe témoin.Conclusion. – L'hyperoxie permet une optimisation de l'entraînement du sportif.Aims. – Evaluate the effect of hyperbaric oxygen on physical exercise performance.Methods. – Twenty two athletes with different specialties: “explosive” (musculation) and “endurance” (cycling), were studied. The “explosive” and “endurance” groups included respectively 6 “hyperoxy” subjects + 3 controls and 6 “hyperoxy” subjects + 7 controls. Twelve 90 min-sessions of training were scheduled: “hyperoxy” group = 100% oxygen at 1.6 b (PO₂ = 160 kPa), control group = atmospheric pressure (PO₂ =21 kPa). Anthropometric and biologic parameters, useful maximum strength (“explosive” group) and VO_2max (“endurance” group) were assessed before and after the 12 sessions. Modifications of strength developed at the cardiac frequency corresponding to the 4 mmol threshold of lactic acid were noted in the “endurance” group.Results. – No difference was noted between the two groups in the variations of the anthropometric and biologic parameters as well as in the VO_2max determinations. The “explosive/hyperoxy” group developed, at the end of the sessions, a more important (P = 0.03) increase of the useful maximum strength that controls. The “endurance” group developed a more important increase (P < 0.05) of sub maximum powers that controls.Conclusion. – Hyperbaric oxygen optimize athletic training.     

Effets du repas précompétitif sur la perception de l'effort et sur la glycémie lors d'un exercice de pédalage

The first purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of three different preexercise meals on perceived exertion and glycaemia during a one-hour bicycle exercise at 80% VO₂ max. The second purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between glycaemia and perceived exertion. Eight athletes (age: 24.6 ± 2.7 years, weight: 78.0 ±6.8 kg, height: 182.6 ± 9.9 cm) completed three assessment sessions, each being preceeded by one of the following meals, ingested 3 h before exercise: 400 mL of water, 400 mL of water and 75 g of glucose, and 100 mL of water and 375 g of potatoes. The subjects 'perceived exertion were measured at times 6, 15, 30, 45, 60 min and glycaemia at 0, 30, 60 min of the exercise. The results showed that perceived exertion (RPE and ETL) of each meal increased as a function of time (P <- 0.05) whereas glycaemia did not differ except for the glucose meal between 30 min and 1 h(P < 0.02). There was no significant difference in ratings of perceived exertion among any meal whereas glycaemia was different between the three conditions only at the beginning and the middle of the exercises (P < 0.04 and P < 0.02, respectively). Moreover, the vectorial angles between the variables ofperceived exertion and the glycaemia are close to 90 °. These results would suggest that perceived exertion does not seem to be affected by the three preexercise meals used in our study. Perceived exertion is not correlated to glycaemia changes during one-hour high intensity exercise. The results would, therefore, suggest that glycaemia is not a contributor signal of perceived exertion in this study. It seems that physiological factors other than glycaemia may have mediated the perceptual intensity at exhaustion. The respiratory-metabolic signals of exertion which are most pronounced at high relative exercise intensity are suggested to influence the perceptual signal of exertion.     

驻新疆部队干部子女血清微量元素状况调查

目的　研究高寒地区部队子女血清微量元素的状况。方法　采用全自动生化分析仪及化学显色法 ,对我院医疗保障体系内 13 2名 5～ 7岁学龄前儿童血清微量元素铁、铜、锌的含量进行检测分析。结果　该地区学龄前儿童贫血的发生率为 2 3 48%;微量元素铁、铜、锌总的缺乏率分别为 :3 0 3 %、15 9%、12 12 %;贫血组儿童血清铁、锌、铜浓度低于或显著低于对照组 (P <0 0 5 ,P <0 0 1)。结论　新疆高寒地区儿童贫血的发生率及血清微量元素铁、铜、锌的缺乏率均较为严重 ,应引起重视     

Évaluation d''une batterie de tests pour la sélection des jointeurs d''une firme hydroélectrique

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the specificity, the reliability and the discriminative power of 12 tests that could be used to select electrical utility workers-splicers. The work of electrical utility workers-splicers consists of building, repair and modification of the underground power grid or lines. The first requirement to retain a test was its reliability (standard error of the estimate arbitrarily set to or lower than 12%). With 13 unexperienced subjects, only four tests met that criterion. The remaining original tests, although specific to the task, show very high test-retest variability (SEE = 15.7 to 107.7%) and were thus rejected on that basis alone. The test-retest data also showed a learning process for many of the tests. Theoretically, that would have to be considered when choosing a pass or fail criterion. From a practical point of view, however, the learning process was observed mostly in the agility tests, which were the same as those rejected due to their low reliability. In the second phase of this study, the discriminative power of the tests was established in comparing inexperienced male subjects (n = 13) to experienced male workers (n = 16). Again, significant differences were found for agility tests that were already rejected. For the four reliability tests, with high physical requirements regarding strength or muscular endurance, there was a significant difference for only one test, indicating a lack of discrimination for the other three. As a result, a logical decision would be to reject those tests. However, considering that these tests were “physical” rather than involving “motor abilities”, the experience of the workers did not make any difference. It is important to underline that inexperienced subjects were physically fit physical education students, which may explain why they scored as high as the workers in these tests. In other words, the unexperienced subjects barely passed these tests. Ideally, it would have been preferable to compare poor and good workers but that was not possible due to adminitrative problems. The correlations among test items was determined in order to eliminate tests having high levels of covariance. None of the retained reliability tests were highly correlated but all were retained as valid tests. In general however, this study has shown the difficulties in constructing task-specific tests. Too many of the original tests, mostly “motor abilities” tests, had to be rejected due to low reliability. Other tests would need to be designed and tested again in order to have a complete battery to mimic the essential aspects of this task.     

Influence de l''hydratation sur la sécrétion d''hormone de croissance induite par l''exerciceHydration influence on exercise-induced growth hormone secretion

Aim – Study was then to investigate hydration influence on exercise-induced GHh secretion.Methods and results – Seven healthy men underwent a submaximal rectangular cycling exercise for 30 minutes to 150 watts during two sessions. A first one without any water intake and a second one with ingestion of spring water corresponding to the volume of water lost during the first session. Plasma volume decrease was significantly higher during the first session (p < 0.05). Total GH secretion was significantly lower during this session (p < 0.05).Conclusion – A moderate dehydration decreases exercise-induced GH response. Thus, hypovolemia may exert a negative feed back on GH secretion, during exercise.     

微量元素锌对跟腱创伤后修复过程的影响

本文分两部分对微量元素锌在跟腱断裂后修复过程中的作用进行研究。动物实验采用80只大白鼠为对象,按食物配方造成低锌、低蛋白补锌及手术后补锌的条件,观察跟腱断裂后愈合的状况,人体观察采用我所跟腱断裂手术的病例,观察血清锌在手术前后的变化。本实验结果表明在组织受创伤时,机体有调整体内锌分布的能力以保证组织愈合的需要。缺锌对跟腱修复有不良影响。机体在低蛋白状况时,单纯补锌的作用是极其有限的。     

Intérêt du questionnaire de surentraînement de la Société française de médecine du sport lors d’un suivi de sportifsOvertraining questionnaire of Société française de médecine du sport for a continuous observation in a sport population

Aim. – Verify the sensibility of a standardised overtraining questionnaire during a weekly observation in a sport population.Methods and results. – The experiment was carried out in 12 athletes, 20–23 years old, students at the University in Licence STAPS, with a standardised overtraining questionnaire given every week during 8 weeks. Results were analysed individually and for the total population. Those showed that overtraining questionnaire could allow individualised training programs, and could provide some pertinent information on sleep quality and physical condition for each athlete. For the coach, the overtraining questionnaire permits to identify some fatigue state, consecutively to training variations. On the total population, the analysis of overtraining questionnaire showed some items more reliable than other.Conclusion. – This questionnaire was very interesting for coaches, allowing a good individualisation of the training program. Nevertheless, this questionnaire presents intricate statistical analysis when given at high frequency.     

Réponses corticotropes à un stress intense en fonction de l'entraînement chez deux souches de rats. Résultats préliminairesCorticotropic responses to acute stress according to exercise training in different rat strains: preliminary results

Aims – Determine the corticotropic responses to acute stress with or without prior exercise training and following the corticotropic phenotype of the rats.Methods and results – Lewis and SHR strains were selected for their opposite corticotropic responsiveness characteristics (high and low in SHR and Lewis strain, respectively). This study shows that exercise training induces opposite adrenal responses in SHR strain and in Lewis strain (which decrease increase its corticosterone concentration, respectively).Conclusion – This suggests that genetic may play an key role in pituitary-adrenal adaptations to exercise training.     

Influence d’une compétition de rugby sur le taux de cortisol salivaireInfluence of an international rugby mah upon the concentration of salivary cortisol

Introduction – Measure the influence of a sporting event (in this case an international rugby match) upon the concentration of salivary cortisol.Synthesis of facts – In order to take our study to a successful conclusion, we took salivary samples from the players during the event as well as at the time of a rest day. These concentrations are measured thanks to a radio immunoassay technique. The sporting event  has resulted in a 75% cortisol level rise. This increase reflects both a physiological and a psychological response to a stressful stimulation. The value of the cortisol before the event is also higher (85%) than the one measured at the same time of day during the rest day.Conclusion – This result shows that the sporting event has a positive correlation with the level of the salivary cortisol that it is to say a cognitive anticipation of the subjects.     

重庆地区圈养梅花鹿血液营养成分研究

随机抽样8只人工圈养的梅花鹿,进行了血液常规指标、无机元素、蛋白组分、氨基酸含量的测试研究。结果：血液红细胞数平均为5．4±0．35X10X12;白细胞总数4．00＋0．41X109;血红蛋白127．50±2．45g／L;血清总蛋白64．40±2．60g/L,白蛋白23．68±3．71g／L球蛋白40．72±2．60g／L;10种血清无机元素,其中磷、锌、铜、铁、锰含量较高;血清含17种氨基酸,包括人和动物体必需的8种氨基酸。说明梅花鹿血液中含有较高的红细胞和白细胞、充足的无机元素、丰富的蛋白质和氨基酸。     

Comparaison de l'oxydation de glucose, d'un mélange de glucose et de fructose, et de saccharose ingérés en bolus ou en doses fractionnées au cours de l'exercice

The purpose of this study was to compare the oxidation rates ofisocaloric amounts of glucose (G), of a mixture of glucose and fructose (G+F), and of sucrose (S) ingested during prolonged exercise (120 min, 58 % V0₂max). The mode of ingestion, that is in a bolus at the onset of exercise or in fractionated doses during the exercise, was also investigated. Six young male subjects ingested a placebo (P), 100 g of G, 50 g of G + 50 g of F, or 95 g of S (13 % concentration) in fractionated doses during exercise, and 100 g of G and 50 g of G + 50 g of F in a bolus at the beginning of exercise. Blood samples were taken before and during the last minute of exercise period. Ingestion of carbohydrates (CHO) does not influence the blood glucose and insulin levels, but decreases by 50% the response of plasma free fatty acid concentration. During the 120-min exercise period, the amounts of ingested carbohydrates which were oxidized were similar for G (53 ± 5 g), G+F (57 ± 6 g) and S (50 ± 7 g). Exogenous CHO oxidation contributed to increasing the total CHO utilization (from 181 to 200 g/120 min) and to reducing fat oxidation (from 86 to 72 g/120 min). Ingestion of CHO as a bolus at the beginning of exercise does not influence G oxidation (58 ± 6 g) but significantly increased the oxidation of the mixture G+F (67 ± 6), probably by favoring fructose utilization which requires a delay. From a practical viewpoint, these results show that the oxidation of S, which is the most widely available oligosaccharide, is similar to that of G or a mixture of G+F. Moreover, in order to maximize exogenous CHO oxidation during exercise, CHO should be ingested early in the exercise period, and not in fractionated doses throughout the exercise period.     

Le questionnaire de surentraînement de la Société française de médecine du sport : reproductibilité à court termeOvertraining questionnaire of the Société française de médecine du sport (French Society of Sport Medicine): short term reproducibility

Purpose. – To assess the short-term stability, over time, of a slightly modified version of the overtraining questionnaire proposed by the SFMS.Methods. – Three or 7-day test–retest of the questionnaire was completed in 30 high level athletes. In a first stage analysis, the score obtained during the first test was compared to and correlated with that obtained during the second one. Then, in a second stage analysis, the individual reproducibility of each item was assessed using a similitude index: a value of 100% meant that all the athletes gave an identical response for the two trials.Results. – Scores were not different between the two tests and intra-class correlation coefficients were r = 0.82. Overall reproducibility of the similitude index was quite good even if six items of 52 displayed a lower similitude index (around 80%).Conclusion. – The short-term reproducibility of the overtraining questionnaire is quite good. This result reinforces its reliability and warrants its use in a longitudinal follow-up framework aimed to detect precociously an overtraining syndrome.     

Body mass changes and voluntary fluid intakes of elite level water polo players and swimmers

Calculated sweat rates (measured by body mass changes) and voluntary fluid intakes were monitored in elite level water polo players and swimmers during normal exercise sessions to determine fluid requirements to maintain fluid balance, and the degree of fluid replacement of these athletes. Data were collected from training and competition sessions for male water polo players (n = 23) and training sessions only for swimmers (n = 20 females; n = 21 males). The calculated average sweat rate and fluid intake rate during training sessions for male water polo players was 287 ml/h and 142 ml/h, respectively, with a rate of 786 ml/h and 380 ml/h during matches. During training sessions for male swimmers, the calculated average sweat rate and fluid intake rate per kilometre was 138 ml/km and 155 ml/km, respectively; and for female swimmers, 107 ml/km and 95 ml/km. There was a wide individual variation in fluid intake and sweat loss of both water polo players and swimmers. Dehydration experienced by athletes in this study was less than typically reported for "land-based" athletes. Errors inherent in the technique used in this study are acknowledged and may be significant in the calculation of reported sweat losses and levels of fluid balance in aquatic athletes.