良性前列腺增生患者残余尿量与膀胱出口梗阻和逼尿肌收缩力的相关性研究

目的:探讨良性前列腺增生(BPH)患者残余尿量(VRU)与膀胱出口梗阻(BOO)程度和逼尿肌收缩力的相关性。方法:临床诊断为BPH的患者152例,均行B超检查测量前列腺体积(PV)和膀胱VRU,自由尿流率检测,全套尿动力学检查评估BOO程度和逼尿肌收缩力。采用SPSS 20.0统计软件,对B超和尿动力学参数行相关性分析,两样本均数比较采用t检验,定义P0.05有统计学意义。结果:PV与BOO程度和逼尿肌收缩力有正相关性(相关系数r=0.432和r=0.343,P0.01)。最大尿流率(Qmax)与BOO程度负相关(r=-0.327,P0.01),而与逼尿肌收缩力无显著相关性(r=0.123,P0.05)。VRU≤150 ml时,VRU与逼尿肌收缩力间无显著相关性(r=0.041,P0.05);当VRU150 ml时,VRU与逼尿肌收缩力有显著负相关性(r=-0.490,P0.01);VRU300 ml时,该相关性尤为明显(r=-0.717,P0.01)。结论:VRU对逼尿肌功能有一定预测价值。VRU150 ml者应重视逼尿肌功能的评估,尤其是VRU300 ml时,建议行尿动力学检查以正确评估BOO程度和逼尿肌收缩力。     

前列腺增生症急性尿潴留患者尿流动力学分析

目的 研究前列腺增生症(BPH)急性尿潴留(AUR)患者尿流动力学特点.方法 143例BPH AUR 患者,留置尿管1周后行尿流动力学检查.患者根据检查结果 分为无逼尿肌过度活动(none detrusor overactive,NDO)组(75例)和逼尿肌过度活动组(detrusor overactive,DO)组(68例);比较两组年龄、国际前列腺症状评分(IPSS)、前列腺体积及尿流动力学参数.结果 比较两组患者的年龄、IPSS评分中储尿期症状评分、排尿期症状评分和前列腺体积,差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05).NDO组中无逼尿肌收缩患者22例(22/143,15.4%),NDO组患者(不包括无逼尿肌收缩患者22例)最大逼尿肌压力及线性被动尿道阻力关系梗阻程度分级均小于DO组,差异具统计学意义(P<0.05);所有NDO组患者初始感觉时膀胱容量、顺应值和测压容积均大于DO组,差异也均具统计学意义(P<0.05).结论 BPH患者出现AUR,应行尿流动力学检查以明确膀胱功能状态,这有利于治疗方案的选择.对于存在DO的患者早期手术解除膀胱出口梗阻,有利于膀胱功能的恢复和降低上尿路损害风险.     

前列腺增生并发恢复期中枢神经疾病的膀胱逼尿肌功能改变

目的:探讨前列腺增生(BPH)并发恢复期中枢神经疾病的膀胱逼尿肌改变.方法:对60例BPH并发恢复期中枢神经疾病患者(研究组)和60例BPH患者(对照组)进行尿动力学检查分析.结果:研究组膀胱顺应性(BC)值(18.61±5.83)ml/cmH2O,逼尿肌不稳定(DI)20例(33.3%),逼尿肌无力15例(25%),低顺应性膀胱33例(55%).对照组BC值(19.20±4.87)ml/cmH2O,DI 17例(28.3%),逼尿肌无力16例(26.7%),低顺应性膀胱29例(48.3%).DI和BC与膀胱流出道梗阻相关(P＜0.05).结论:尿动力学检查有助于了解BPH并发恢复期中枢神经疾病的患者的膀胱逼尿肌功能改变,明确患者排尿困难的原因,指导诊断和选择治疗方法,预测预后和判断疗效.DI和BC与膀胱流出道梗阻相关.     

前列腺中叶增生与膀胱出口梗阻程度的相关性分析(附131例报告)

目的:分析良性前列腺增生(BPH)患者中叶增生大小与膀胱出口梗阻(BOO)程度之间的相关性。方法:对2008年5月~2010年6月因排尿困难就诊的BPH患者131例,通过经腹超声测定前列腺三径和前列腺突入膀胱的距离(IPP),尿动力学检查测定最大尿流率(Qm ax)、最大尿流率时的逼尿肌压力(Pdet@Qm ax),利用L in-PURR图判断梗阻级别和逼尿肌收缩力,并计算出AG值(AG=Pdet@Qm ax-2Qm ax)。不同IPP梗阻程度的比较采用方差分析,并对前列腺体积(PV)、IPP与AG值进行相关性分析。结果:当IPP>10 mm时,IPP与BOO高度正相关(相关系数r=0.821,P<0.01)。PV与BOO相关度较低(r=0.475,P<0.01)。IPP与Pdet@Qm ax高度正相关(r=0.865,P<0.01)。结论:前列腺中叶增生与BOO存在高度相关性,超声测定中叶突入膀胱的距离是判断BOO程度较为可靠的方法。     

剩余分数在评价BPH所致膀胱出口梗阻中的临床意义

目的:探讨剩余分数(RF)在评价BPH致膀胱出口梗阻(BOO)程度及逼尿肌功能的应用价值。方法:69例BPH患者行尿动力学各项指标测定,分析剩余尿量(PVR)和RF与排尿前尿量、Qmax、逼尿肌收缩强度的相关性。结果:PVR与排尿前尿量呈显著正相关(r=0.6154,P<0.01),RF与排尿前尿量则无明显相关性(r=0.2419,P=0.07)。PVR与Qmax呈显著负相关(r=-0.3212,P<0.01),RF与Qmax呈极显著负相关(r=-0.4356,P<0.01)。逼尿肌收缩强度为极弱、弱与正常和强的患者的PVR、RF的差异均有统计学意义(分别为P=0.0172,P=0.0021)。结论:RF不受排尿前尿量的影响,是一项较PVR能更好的评价BPH所致BOO及其程度和逼尿肌收缩功能的静态指标。     

前列腺增生致膀胱出口梗阻后逼尿肌功能改变对尿动力学参数的影响

目的探讨良性前列腺增生症（BPH）致膀胱出口梗阻（BOO）后逼尿肌功能改变对尿动力学参数的影响。方法109例具有完整尿动力学结果的BPH患者根据有无B00分为梗阻组和非梗阻组;梗阻组根据梗阻级别分Ⅲ、Ⅳ、Ⅴ、Ⅵ级4组;逼尿肌收缩力分为逼尿肌收缩力减弱（DCA）与收缩力正常组;逼尿肌不稳定（DI）分DI与非DI;膀胱顺应性（BC）分高、正常、低顺应性三组;28例患者行经尿道前列腺切除术（TURP）术前及术后尿动力参数对比。结果BOO组的前列腺体积（PV）、国际前列腺症状评分（IPSS）、DI、急性尿潴留（AUR）发生率明显高于非BOO组（P〈O．05）;BOO组的最大尿流率（Qmax）、BC值、DCA发生率明显低于非BOO组（P〈0．05）;逼尿肌收缩力正常组的残余尿（RV）与BC值明显低于减弱组（P〈0．05）,而BOO和DI的发生率明显高于减弱组（P〈0．01）;DI组的年龄、BC值及DCA的发生率明显低于非DI组（P〈0．05）,而B00级别和AUR的发生率明显高于非DI组（P〈0．01）;低BC组IPSS、BOO级别、AUR发生率明显高于正常及高BC组（P〈0．05）,而DCA发生率明显低于正常及高BC组（P〈0．01）;术后Qmax、BC值较术前明显升高（P〈0．05）,RV、IPSS、DI发生率较术前明显减小（P〈0．01）。结论①BOO常与低顺应性膀胱、DI、AUR合并存在;②IPSS评分不能提示是否存在DI,DI的存在不影响IPSS评分;③TURP是治疗前列腺增生的金标准;④尿动力检查能全面了解有无BOO及BOO所致逼尿肌功能改变情况,对BPH的临床鉴别诊断、预后估计及选择恰当治疗方案都具有重要意义。     

良性前列腺增生患者尿动力学及逼尿肌超微结构的相关性研究

目的 探讨良性前列腺增生(BPH)患者尿动力学检查与膀胱逼尿肌超微结构的关系.方法 BPH组患者43例,平均年龄(69.5±6.0)岁;无膀胱出口梗阻的其他疾病患者21例为对照组,平均年龄(65.4±7.2)岁.2组患者均行尿动力学检查,透射电镜观察膀胱逼尿肌超微结构.比较2组患者尿动力学检查及逼尿肌超微结构情况.结果 BPH组和对照组患者国际前列腺症状评分分别为(21.1±3.0)和(7.6土1.4)分,P<0.01;最大尿流率分别为(7.7±1.3)和(14.9±2.3)ml/s,P<0.01;最大尿流率时逼尿肌收缩压分别为(60.1±11.o)和(48.7±7.1)cm H2o(1 cm HzO=0.098 kPa),P<0.05;梗阻系数分别为44.8±9.9和19.0±5.9,P<0.01;膀胱逼尿肌细胞线粒体相对密度分别为0.81±0.24和1.03±0.11,P<0.05;膀胱逼尿肌细胞间隙分别为(19.4±4.8)和(14.1±2.0)nm,P<0.05.结论 BPH患者逼尿肌细胞线粒体水肿、相对密度减低,是导致逼尿肌收缩力减弱的原因之一;同时由于细胞间隙增宽,导致逼尿肌收缩速度减慢或不协调,引起膀胱协调收缩力下降.     

良性前列腺增生患者逼尿肌功能的评估和治疗对策

目的　为了解良性前列腺增生（BPH）患者产生下尿路症状的成因,为正确诊治下尿路症状提供准确的证据。　方法　采用尿动力学方法分析无神经系统疾病的良性前列腺增生患者的膀胱尿道功能。　结果　164例良性前列腺增生患者,平均年龄67±7.04岁,膀胱出口梗阻者占61.6％（101/164）,无梗阻者占38.4％（63/164）;逼尿肌收缩力正常者为83%（136/164）,逼尿肌收缩力减弱者17％（28/164）,以上各组之间I-PSS评分和年龄无显著性差异。膀胱出口无梗阻者中逼尿肌收缩力减弱者占44.4%（28/63）,逼尿肌收缩力正常占55.6％（35/63）。在膀胱出口无梗阻者中,逼尿肌收缩力减弱合并不稳定膀胱患者为28.6％（8/28）,而逼尿肌收缩力正常合并不稳定膀胱患者57.1％（20/35）,膀胱出口无梗阻逼尿肌收缩力减弱合并不稳定膀胱患者明显少于膀胱出口无梗阻逼尿肌收缩力正常者（P＜0.02）,两组患者I-PSS评分和膀胱顺应性均无明显差异。　结论　BPH患者下尿路症状的产生不仅与前列腺增生引起的膀胱出口梗阻有关,部分患者并不存在膀胱出口梗阻,其下尿路症状的成因为逼尿肌功能变化所致,尿动力学检查能为下尿路症状患者的诊治提供可靠的依据。     

前列腺增生继发逼尿肌活动障碍的超微病理研究

目的探讨前列腺增生(BPH)继发逼尿肌活动障碍的超微结构变化。方法以尿动力学检查为依据,在BPH患者中筛选出13例膀胱出口梗阻(BOO)者,分为逼尿肌不稳定(DI)组3例、逼尿肌收缩力低下(DH)组4例、逼尿肌无收缩(DA)组3例和逼尿肌正常收缩(DC)组3例,分别行透射电镜观察。结果 (1)逼尿肌不稳定组:逼尿肌平滑肌细胞(SMC)之间的间隙明显增宽,细胞间中间连接(IJ)明显减少,为缝隙连接和胞突连接所取代;(2)逼尿肌收缩力低下组:SMC形态大小不一,分布不均,肌丝紊乱,增宽的间隙中沉积大量胶原纤维;(3)逼尿肌无收缩组:SMC扭曲变形,胞浆中肌丝排列走行紊乱,致密体分布不均,线粒体减少,肌质膜下小凹(CV)减少。结论尿动力学表现不同的BPH继发逼尿肌活动障碍患者具有相应的逼尿肌超微结构病理改变,对BPH继发逼尿肌活动障碍的分类和治疗具有一定的价值。     

尿动力学检查在前列腺增生症术前评估中的临床意义

目的探讨前列腺增生症(BPH)手术治疗前尿动力学检查的必要性。方法对166例拟行手术治疗的BPH患者的尿动力学检查结果进行分析。结果在166例患者中,125例(75.3%)证实存在膀胱出口梗阻(BOO ),25例(15.1%)为可疑BOO(BOO±),16例(9.6%)无BOO(BOO-),3组之间在最大尿流率(Qmax)、残余尿量(PVRV)、逼尿肌/外括约肌协同失调(DSD)上差异无统计意义,BOO( )组的逼尿肌不稳定(DI)、低顺应性膀胱的发生率明显高于其他两组,逼尿肌收缩力减弱(DUA)的发生率明显低于其他两组。结论尿动力学检查对诊断BPH、选择治疗方法和预测疗效有重要意义,手术治疗前应常规检查。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.