Preliminary studies of a new monitor ionization chamber

A new monitor ionization chamber was developed at Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (IPEN) in order to monitor X-ray beams. The main difference of this monitor ionization chamber in relation to other monitor chambers is its geometry, which consists of a ring-shaped sensitive volume. Because of this geometry, the monitor chamber has a central hole through which the direct radiation beam passes. The operational characteristics of the monitor chamber were evaluated: saturation, ion collection efficiency and polarity effect. Besides these tests, the short- and medium-term stabilities of its response were also evaluated. During the tests the leakage current was always negligible. All results showed values within those recommended internationally (IEC, 1997. Medical electrical equipment—dosimeters with ionization chambers and/or semi-conductor detectors as used in X-ray diagnostic imaging. IEC 61674. International Electrotechnical Commission, Genève).     

Application of extrapolation chambers in low-energy X-rays as reference systems

Extrapolation chambers are instruments designed to measure doses of low-energy radiations, mainly beta radiation. In this work, a commercial extrapolation chamber and a homemade extrapolation chamber were applied in measurements using standard radiotherapy X-ray beams. Saturation curves and polarity effect as well as short- and medium-term stabilities were obtained, and these results are within the recommendations of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The response linearity and the extrapolation curves were also obtained, and they presented good behavior. The results show the usefulness of these extrapolation chambers in low-energy X-ray beams.     

Polarity correction factor for flattening filter free photon beams in several cylindrical ionization chambers

In this study, we aimed to compare the polarity correction factor in ionization chambers for flattening filter free (FFF) photon beams and flattening filter (FF) beams. Measurements were performed with both 6 and 10 MV FFF and FF beams. Five commercial ionization chambers were evaluated: PTW TN30013; IBA Dosimetry CC01, CC04, and CC13; and Exradin A12S. Except for the CC01 ionization chamber, the other four chambers showed less than a 0.3 % difference in the polarity effect between the FFF and the FF beams. The CC01 chamber showed a strong field-size-dependence, unlike the other chambers. The polarity effect for all chambers with FFF beams did not change with the dose rate. Except in the case of the CC01 chamber, the difference in the polarity effect between FFF and FF beams was not significant.     

A comparison of protocols for external beam radiotherapy beam calibrations

A number of codes of practice (CoP) for electron and photon radiotherapy beam dosimetry are currently in use. Comparison is made of the more widely used of these, specifically those of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA TRS-398), the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM TG-51) and the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM 2003). All are based on calibration of ionization chambers in terms of absorbed dose to water, each seeking to reduce uncertainty in delivered dose, providing an even stronger system of primary standards than previous air-kerma based approaches. They also provide a firm, traceable and straight-forward formalism (Radiology, 1996). Included in making dose assessments for the three CoP are calibration coefficients for a range of beam quality indices. Measurements have been performed using clinical photon and electron beams, the absorbed dose to water being obtained following the recommendations given by each code. Electron beam comparisons have been carried out using measurements for electron beams of nominal energies 6, 9, 12, 16 and 20 MeV. Comparisons were also carried out for photon beams of nominal energies 6 and 18 MV. For photon beams use was made of NE2571 cylindrical graphite walled ionization chambers, cross-calibrated against an NE2611 Secondary Standard; for electron beams, PTW Markus and NACP-02 plane-parallel chambers were used. Irradiations were made using Varian 600C/2100C linacs, supported by water tanks and Virtual Water? phantoms. The absorbed doses for photon and electron beams obtained following these CoP are all in good agreement, with deviations of less than 2%. A number of studies have been carried out by different groups in different countries to examine the consistency of dosimetry codes of practice or protocols. The aim of these studies is to confirm that the goal of those codes is met, namely uniformity in establishment of dosimetry of all radiation beam types used in cancer therapy in the world, and this is one of the studies.     

Dosimetry of 70 MeV proton beams from the NIRS cyclotron

Dosimetry of 70 MeV proton beams for radiotherapy was carried out using various ionization chambers. The beam irradiation conditions, dose estimation with an ionization chamber, measurement of dose distributions, and calculation of isodose curves for the proton beams will be discussed.     

湖北省核查放射治疗非参考条件剂量学参数方法的验证

目的 研究用TLD核查医用电子加速器在非参考条件下,光子线束剂量随照射野、楔形板变化,电子线束剂量随照射野、源皮距变化的剂量学参数方法的可靠性。方法 在非参考条件下,用指形电离室测量光子线束水下10 cm处吸收剂量和电子线束最大剂量点处吸收剂量,并在同一位置放置TLD进行照射,将照射后的TLD邮寄到中国疾病预防控制中心辐射防护与核安全医学所进行测量并估算剂量。结果 光子线束剂量点共70个,其中58个点的TLD测量结果与指形电离室测量结果相对偏差在±7.0%以内（IAEA允许偏差±7.0%）,合格率为82.8%。经过P_S值修正后,合格点数达到62个,合格率上升为88.6%;电子线束剂量点为24个,其TLD测量结果与指形电离室测量结果相对偏差均在±5.0%以内（IAEA允许偏差±5.0%）,合格率为100%。结论 用TLD核查非参考条件电子线束剂量学参数方便,与指形电离室相互验证,可提高剂量测量的准确性。电子线束能量在5 MeV<E₀<10 MeV的范围内,用指形电离室测量吸收剂量参数,并用TLD验证,其结果精确可靠。     

Influence on Measurements of Pre-irradiation Due to Differences in Ionization Chamber Shape or Frequency in Use

Ionization chamber measurements in radiation therapy should be repeatedly performed until a stable reading is obtained. Ionization chambers exhibit a response which depends on time elapsed since the previous irradiation. In this study, we investigated the response of a set of two Farmer-style, one Plane parallel, and seven small ionization chambers, which are exposed to 4, 6, 10, and 14 MV. The results show that Farmer-style and Plane parallel ionization chambers settle quickly within 9-20 min. On the other hand, small ionization chambers exhibit settling times of 12-33 min for 6, 10, and 14 MV. It will take longer for a settling time of 4 MV. The settling time showed time dependent irradiation. The first reading was up to 0.76% lower in the Farmer-style and Plane parallel ionization chambers. The small ionization chambers had a 2.60% lower first reading and more gradual response in reaching a stable reading. In this study, individual ionization chambers can vary significantly in their settling behavior. Variation of the responses on ionization chambers were confirmed not only when radiation was not used for a week but also when it was halted for a month. Pre-irradiation of small ionization chambers is clearly warranted for eliminating inadvertent error in the calibration of radiation beams.     

Effective dose transmission of diagnostic X-rays through concrete and lead shields

When computing the amount of leakage from a diagnostic X-ray room, the transmission data of X-ray beams through the shielding material, which are used in the computation, must agree with the conditions of use of the X-ray equipment. Even if the tube potential is the same, the energy spectrum of generated X-rays depends on conditions such as high voltage rectification and total filtration, and transmission through the shielding material, too, is subject to change. In this paper, we propose a new method of calculation, which uses transmission data of mono-energetic photon beams computed by means of a Monte Carlo simulation, for obtaining effective dose transmission data through the shielding material of an X-ray beam with spectral distribution. We also present effective dose transmission data of primary X-ray beams and 90 degrees scattered X-ray beams through concrete and lead shields as determined by this method. This method, which can calculate the transmission data of X-ray beams with any spectral distribution, is useful in evaluating the leakage dose of diagnostic X-ray facilities.     

Neutron dosimetry intercomparisons between National Accelerator Centre, Université Catholique de Louvain and Clatterbridge Hospital

Neutron dosimetry intercomparison studies have been undertaken at three neutron therapy facilities which have similar beam characteristics; viz. National Accelerator Centre, South Africa [p(66 MeV)+Be], Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium, [p(65 MeV)+Be] and MRC Cyclotron Unit, Clatterbridge Hospital, U. K. [p(62 MeV)+Be]. The procedures followed at all centres were the same: tissue equivalent (TE) ionization chambers were first calibrated in 60Co beams and then exposed under various conditions in the respective neutron therapy beams. Measurements were made with the chambers flushed with TE gas or filled with static air. The neutron beam measurements differed by a maximum of 2.4%, whereas if only one particular type of ionization chamber is considered the spread in values is reduced to +/- 0.5%. The TE gas/air response ratios are consistent with calculated values. The results obtained are highly satisfactory and confirm that the dosimetry procedures adopted by the participating institutes conform to international standards.     

Effects of the particle sizes and concentrations on the X-ray absorption by CuO compounds

This work presents a study on the effects of the particle size, material concentration and radiation energy on the X-ray absorption. CuO nanoparticles and microparticles were incorporated separately into a polymeric resin in concentrations of 5%, 10% and 30% relative to the resin mass. X-ray absorption by these materials was analyzed with a CdTe detector. The X-ray absorption is higher for the nanostructured material compared to the microstructured one for low energy X-ray beams for all CuO concentrations.     

IAEA剂量实用规范与我国“放疗剂量学规定”的比较研究

目的研究用于放射治疗剂量测定的国际原子能机构(IAEA)第277号技术报告《光子束和电子束吸收剂量的确定》国际实用规范和我国1984年国家计量局和卫生部颁布的基于ICRU23号技术报告的《关于肿瘤放射治疗剂量学的若干规定》之间的差异。方法用理论计算和实验测量2种方法比较了不同的电离室在测量^60Co γ射线和3种能量的高能X射线水中吸收剂量所得结果。结果大部分常用的电离室在不同的光子能量下使用两种方法所测的结果差异小于1％，只有1个电离室的结果大于1％，并小于1．5％。结论现在放射治疗对剂量有更高的精度要求，所以我们建议尽量采用IAEA国际实用规范。     

Performance of a pencil ionization chamber in various radiation beams.

Pencil ionization chambers were recommended for use exclusively in the computed tomography (CT) dosimetry, and, from the start, they were developed only with this application in view. In this work, we studied the behavior of a pencil ionization chamber in various radiation beams with the objective of extending its application. Stability tests were performed, and calibration coefficients were obtained for several standard radiation qualities of the therapeutical and diagnostic levels. The results show that the pencil ionization chamber can be used in several radiation beams other than those used in CT.     

Dosimetric protocols in radiotherapy: A computer program

A computer program to evaluate the dose to water in a specified point for low, medium and high energy photon and electron radiotherapeutic beams using different ionization chambers, phantom materials and new dosimetric standard protocols has been developed. The absorbed dose to air cavity calibration factors of the ionization chambers at the radiation quality, the updated physical quantities and dosimetric parameters are part of the data base, which is extendable to individual users' needs. Moreover, the management software permits comparison of different dosimetric protocols and reduction of errors on the dose delivered to patients.     

The Clatterbridge high-energy neutron facility: dosimetry intercomparisons

Dosimetry intercomparisons have been performed between the Clatterbridge high-energy neutron facility and the following institutions, all employing beams with similar neutron energies: Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium; University of Washington, Seattle, USA; MD Anderson Hospital, Houston, USA; and Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, USA. The purpose of the intercomparison was to provide a basis for the exchange of dose-response data and to facilitate the involvement of Clatterbridge in collaborative clinical trials. Tissue-equivalent ionization chambers were used by the participants in each intercomparison to compare measurements of total (neutron plus gamma) absorbed dose in the host institution's neutron beam, following calibration of the chambers in a reference photon beam. The effects of differences in exposure standards, chamber responses in the neutron beams and protocol-dependent dosimetry factors were all investigated. It was concluded that the overall difference in the measurement of absorbed dose relative to that determined by the Clatterbridge group was less than 2%.     

Transferring calibration coefficients from ionisation chambers used for diagnostic radiology to transmission chambers

In this work, the response of a double volume transmission ionisation chamber, developed at the Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares, was compared to that of a commercial transmission chamber. Both ionisation chambers were tested in different X-ray beam qualities using secondary standard ionisation chambers as reference dosimeters. These standard ionisation chambers were a parallel-plate and a cylindrical ionisation chambers, used for diagnostic radiology and mammography beam qualities, respectively. The response of both transmission chambers was compared to that of the secondary standard chambers to obtain coefficients of equivalence. These coefficients allow the transmission chambers to be used as reference equipment.     

Comprehensive analysis of the spectrometric determination of voltage applied to X-ray tubes in the radiography and mammography energy ranges using a silicon PIN photodiode

This work describes the analysis of factors which affect the results of estimation of the electron accelerating potential (kVp) applied to an X-ray tube, through determination of the end point of the energy spectrum of the emitted radiation beam. Measurements have been performed utilizing two spectrometers each with a silicon PIN photodiode: one operating at room temperature, and the other, a high resolution spectrometer, with a Peltier cooler. Both were directly irradiated by different X-ray beams. Both systems work at low voltage and without liquid nitrogen cooling, thus avoiding the drawbacks presented by germanium detectors. Each kVp value was determined by linear regression of the end of the spectrum, so as to give, simultaneously, the best fit to the experimental data and low standard deviation for the kVp value. Detector energy resolution and calibration, counting statistics and high voltage waveform ripple have been investigated in order to establish better experimental conditions and to optimize measurement time. Results of measurements carried out with X-ray tubes connected to single-phase, three-phase or constant potential units, using additional filtration of Cu, Al or Mo (for mammographic beams), are presented. The variations resulted in kVp uncertainties up to 0.1 kV.     

辽宁省核查放射治疗参考与非参考条件下剂量学参数方法验证

目的 研究用热释光剂量计（TLD）方法核查放射治疗参考条件和非参考条件下剂量学参数的可靠性验证。方法 在参考条件和非参考条件下,用建立的TLD方法,核查5家医院10条6 MV光子线束剂量随深度、源皮距、照射野大小和45°楔形板等变化,5条9 MeV电子线束轴向最大剂量点处等剂量学参数,TLD测量结果与剂量仪测量结果进行对比。结果 6 MV 光子线束TLD测量结果与指形电离室测量结果的平均相对偏差为4.45%,低于IAEA要求的≤±7%;9 MeV电子线束TLD测量结果与平行板电离室测量结果平均相对偏差为2.45%,低于IAEA要求的≤±5%。结论 用TLD核查参考条件和非参考条件下放射治疗剂量学参数方法可靠,简单易行。     

不同指形电离室测量高能光子束吸收剂量的比较

目的 比较不同指形电离室依据国际原子能机构(IAEA) TRS-277和TRS-398号报告测量高能光子束吸收剂量的差异.方法 针对6种不同型号的指形电离室,依据照射量校准因子Nx分别计算其60Co水吸收剂量校准因子ND,W,Q0,与欧洲标准实验室的测定值比较;依据TRS-277号报告分别计算其水中测量6 MV光子束吸收剂量的射线质修正因子KQ.Q0,与TRS-398号报告给出的值比较;比较其依据TRS-277和TRS-398号报告测量6 MV光子束的吸收剂量实际测量数据.结果 对上述6种指形电离室,依据Nx计算出的ND,W,Q0与欧洲标准实验室直接测定的ND,W.Q0的差异在0.13％～1.30％之间;依据TRS-277号报告计算的kQ.Q0与TRS-398号报告给出的kQ,Q0的差异在0.09％ ～0.45％之间;依据两个报告在水中测量的吸收剂量差异在0.27％～1.40％之间.吸收剂量的主要差异来源于两个报告校准因子Nx和ND,W,Q0的不同.结论 不同指形电离室依据两个报告测量水吸收剂量的差异属于临床可接受的范围,使用TRS-398号报告摆位更方便,计算更简单,测量不确定度降低.     

A double faced ionization chamber for quality control in diagnostic radiology beams

The development of new radiation detectors of low cost but with adequate materials is a very important task for countries that have to import ionization chambers such as Brazil. A special double faced ionization chamber was developed for use in conventional diagnostic radiology beams and computed tomography energy ranges. The results show that this new chamber present applicability in conventional diagnostic radiology and computed tomography quality control programs.     

电离室灵敏体积对调强放射治疗剂量学验证准确性的影响

目的研究电离室灵敏体积对调强放射治疗绝对剂量验证的影响。方法将调强治疗计划移植到重建的数字化体模上计算吸收剂量，对单个照射野和整个计划，分别在等中心点、最大剂量点以及剂量梯度大和剂量分布均匀的区域选取一些有代表意义的剂量点，用0．6、0．125和0．015cc电离室在固体水体模中分别测量各点的吸收剂量，并与TPS计算值进行比较。结果等中心和剂量分布均匀区域，各电离室测量值与计算值的相对误差均在5％范围内；最大剂量点和剂量梯度较大区域，0．6cc电离室误差达到8％和12％，小体积电离室误差较小。结论0．6和0．125cc电离室可用于剂量梯度较小处的绝对剂量验证，在最大剂量点和剂量梯度大的区域，误差较大，0．015cc电离室较适用于调强放射治疗剂量验证。