Investigation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coxiella burnetii</Emphasis> in Iranian camels

Coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic, obligate intracellular bacterium that caused Q fever. Antibodies to this organism have been reported in a wide range of animals including mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. This study is aimed to detect C. burnetii in camel by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Blood samples from 130 camels were collected between August and September 2011 then examined in laboratory conditions. Detection of the presence of C. burnetii DNA was carried out using a PCR assay with specific primers (Coc-F and Coc-R) targeting the 16S ribosomal RNA gene (242 bp). In this study, a total of 14 (10.76 %) camel blood samples were found PCR positive for C. burnetii. This result proves that camels are an important reservoir of C. burnetii infection. This study showed relatively high positivity of C. burnetii in Iranians camels, and accordingly, it seems necessary to evaluate the prevalence for this microorganism in Iran.     

Serological follow-up in patients with aorto-iliac disease and evidence of Q fever infection

The aim of this study was to provide data on the risk of developing chronic Q fever in patients with aorto-iliac disease and evidence of previous Q fever infection. Patients with an aortic and/or iliac aneurysm or aorto-iliac reconstruction (aorto-iliac disease) and evidence of previous Q fever infection were included. The presence of phase I and II Coxiella burnetii IgG antibodies was assessed periodically using immunofluorescence assay. A total of 111 patients with aorto-iliac disease were divided into three groups, based upon the serological profile [mean follow-up: 16?±?9 months (mean?±?standard deviation)]. Group 1 consisted of 30 patients with a serological trace of C. burnetii infection (negative IgG phase I, IgG phase II titer of 1:32). Of these, 36.7 % converted to serological profile matching past resolved Q fever. Group 2 included 49 patients with negative IgG phase I titer and IgG phase II titer ≥1:64. No patients developed chronic Q fever, but 14.3 % converted to a positive IgG phase I titer. Group 3 consisted of 32 patients with positive IgG phase I and positive IgG phase II titers, of which 9.4 % developed chronic Q fever (significantly different from group 2, p?=?0.039). The IgG phase I titer increased in 28.1 % of patients (from 1:64 to 1:4,096). The risk of developing chronic Q fever in patients with aorto-iliac disease and previous Q fever infection with a positive IgG phase I titer was 9.4 %. The IgG phase I titer increases or becomes positive in a substantial number of patients. A standardized serological follow-up is proposed.     

Epidemiological study of Q fever in humans, ruminant animals, and ticks in Cyprus using a geographical information system

A cross-sectional study of Q fever was conducted in a representative sample of the human and animal population in Cyprus in order to assess the seroprevalence of Q fever and the prevalence of related risk factors. A total of 583 human and 974 ruminant animal serum samples were collected and tested for the detection of antibodies against Coxiella burnetii phase II antigen using an indirect immunofluorescent assay. One hundred forty-one ticks were collected from the infested animals examined; the polymerase chain reaction and the shell-vial technique were used to detect and isolate C. burnetii. Standardized questionnaires were used to obtain information concerning inhabitants and their animals. A geographical information system was used to identify high-risk regions. The prevalence of IgG antibodies against C. burnetii phase II antigen was estimated at 52.7% for humans, 48.2% for goats, 18.9% for sheep, and 24% for bovines. C. burnetii was detected in 11 (7.8%) ticks. Using the geographical information system, two villages were identified as high-risk regions on the basis of high seroprevalence rates of IgG antibodies in humans and animals. Risk factors related to Q fever seropositivity were identified by logistic regression analysis and included age, residence, occupation, use of manure in the garden, ownership of animals (especially goats), and the presence of tick-infested or aborting animals. Q fever poses an occupational hazard to humans living in close contact with sheep and/or goats. In parallel, ticks should be considered an important aspect in the epidemiology of Q fever and should be further studied to better elucidate their role.     

Targeted screening as a tool for the early detection of chronic Q fever patients after a large outbreak

In the aftermath of the Dutch Q fever outbreak, an increasing number of patients are being diagnosed with chronic Q fever. Most of these patients are unaware of being infected with Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever. To find patients in an earlier, asymptomatic stage, a targeted screening strategy (TSS) for patients with risk factors for chronic Q fever was started in the southeast region of Noord-Brabant. In total, 763 patients were tested using an IgG phase II indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT), of which 52 (7 %) patients tested positive. Ten of these 52 patients displayed a chronic Q fever serological profile. All of these 10 patients had a heart valve(s) or (endo-)vascular prosthesis. All except one were asymptomatic. Suggestive signs for chronic infections on positron emission tomography–computed tomography (PET-CT) were demonstrated in 5 (50 %) of these patients. Forty-two out of the 52 patients with a positive screening test showed a past Q fever serological profile. After a year of follow-up (every 3 months), none of these patients showed elevation of antibody titres and no new chronic Q fever patients were found in this group. A targeted screening programme is a useful instrument for detecting patients at risk of developing chronic Q fever.     

Serologic prevalence of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infections in broilers and broiler breeder chickens in Kermanshah Province,west of Iran

The presence of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) in poultry farms in several parts of Iran has been confirmed over the last few years. The purpose of this study was to determine the presence of ORT antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in broiler and broiler breeder chickens in western parts of Iran. In a one-year period, from April 2009 to February 2010, a total of 435 blood samples were collected from 30 commercial chicken flocks (24 broiler flocks and six broiler breeder flocks) located in Kermanshah Province, west of Iran. None of the broilers and broiler breeders have been vaccinated against ORT prior to sampling. The province was divided into four geographical areas: southwest, southeast, northwest, and northeast. Flocks in each area, specifically the birds in each flock, were randomly sampled. The presence of antibodies against ORT in each serum sample was tested twice by ELISA using a commercial kit. The results revealed that 50.1 % broiler and 70.5 % broiler breeder chickens were serologically positive for ORT. Out of 347 serum samples obtained from broiler chickens, 174 (50.1 %) were positive for ORT antibodies, which represented 18 (75.0 %) of 24 examined broiler flocks. A higher rate of seropositivity (71.4 % of samples and 83.3 % of broiler flocks) was observed in the northwest. Out of 88 samples obtained from broiler breeder chickens, 62 (70.5 %) were positive for ORT antibodies, which belonged to six (100 %) of the examined broiler breeder flocks. Detection of anti-ORT antibodies among broiler breeders was significantly higher than that of broilers.     

Genetic variations in innate immunity genes affect response to Coxiella burnetii and are associated with susceptibility to chronic Q fever

ObjectivesChronic Q fever is a persistent infection, mostly of aortic aneurysms, vascular prostheses or damaged heart valves, caused by the intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii. Only a fraction of C. burnetii-infected individuals at risk develop chronic Q fever. In these individuals, a defective innate immune response may contribute to the development of chronic Q fever. We assessed whether genetic variations in genes involved in the killing machinery for C. burnetii by macrophages, contribute to the progression to chronic Q fever.MethodsThe prevalence of 66 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 31 genes pivotal in phagolysosomal maturation, bacterial killing and autophagy, was determined in 173 chronic Q fever patients and 184 controls with risk factors for chronic Q fever and serological evidence of a C. burnetii infection. Associations were detected with univariate logistic regression models. To assess the effect of these SNPs on innate responses to C. burnetii, the C. burnetii-induced cytokine production and basal reactive oxygen species production of healthy volunteers was determined.ResultsRAB7A (rs13081864) and P2RX7 loss-of-function SNP (rs3751143) were more common in chronic Q fever patients than in controls. RAB5A (rs8682), P2RX7 gain-of-function SNP (rs1718119), MAP1LC3A (rs1040747) and ATG5 (rs2245214) were more common in controls. In healthy volunteers, RAB7A (rs13081864) and MAP1LC3A (rs1040747) influenced the C. burnetii-induced cytokine production. RAB7A (rs13081864) modulated basal reactive oxygen species production.ConclusionsRAB7A (rs13081864) and P2RX7 (rs3751143) are associated with the development of chronic Q fever, whereas RAB5A (rs8682), P2RX7 (rs1718119), MAP1LC3A (rs1040747) and ATG5 (rs2245214) may have protective effects.     

Fluorescence in situ hybridization for detecting Coxiella burnetii in tissue samples from chronic Q fever patients

ObjectiveDetection of the intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii, causative agent of chronic Q fever, is notoriously difficult. Diagnosis of and duration of antibiotic treatment for chronic Q fever is partly determined by detection of the bacterium with polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) might be a promising technique for detecting C. burnetii in tissue samples from chronic Q fever patients, but its value in comparison with PCR is uncertain. We aim to assess the value of FISH for detecting C. burnetii in tissue of chronic Q fever patients.MethodsFISH and PCR were performed on tissue samples from Dutch chronic Q fever patients collected during surgery or autopsy. Sensitivity, specificity, and overall diagnostic accuracy were calculated. Additionally, data on patient and disease characteristics were collected from electronic medical records.ResultsIn total, 49 tissue samples from mainly vascular walls, heart valves, or placentas, obtained from 39 chronic Q fever patients, were examined by FISH and PCR. The sensitivity and specificity of FISH compared to PCR for detecting C. burnetii in tissue samples from chronic Q fever patients was 45.2% (95% confidence interval (CI), 27.3% – 64.0%) and 84.6% (95% CI, 54.6% – 98.1%), respectively. The overall diagnostic accuracy was 56.8% (95% CI, 42.2% - 72.3%). Two C. burnetii PCR negative placentas were FISH positive. Four FISH results (8.2%) were deemed inconclusive because of autofluorescence.ConclusionWith an overall diagnostic accuracy of 57.8%, we conclude that FISH has limited value in the routine diagnostics of chronic Q fever.     

Seroprevalence of Q fever in a district located in the west Black Sea region of Turkey

Q fever is a worldwide zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii. In Turkey, it has been reported from the late 1940s that Q fever is endemic in humans and animals. Our objective was to evaluate the seroprevalence in Samsun Tekkeköy (north Turkey), where an outbreak of Q fever occurred in 2002. In this cross-sectional study, subjects were selected by the random proportional sampling method. All subjects were healthy with no specific symptoms and tested by the microimmunofluorescent antibody test. In total, we tested 407 subjects; 33 (8.1%) of them were identified as past evidence of infection and 22 (5.4%) were considered as evolutive form of Q fever (17 acute and five chronic forms). The seroprevalence was significantly higher among people over 30 years of age, hunters, and slaughters than the others (p?=?0.001, p?=?0.034, and p?=?0.006, respectively). We found 13.5% seropositivity among healthy subjects, confirming that Q fever is prevalent in our region and is often asymptomatic.     

Diversity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptosporidium</Emphasis> species occurring in sheep and goat breeds reared in Poland

The aim of this study was molecular identification of Cryptosporidium species and assessment of their prevalence in different breeds of sheep and goat reared in Poland. In addition, the relationship between animal age, breed type, and the frequency of Cryptosporidium infections was determined. Fecal samples from 234 lambs and 105 goat kids aged up to 9 weeks, representing 24 breeds and their cross-breeds were collected from 71 small ruminant farms across Poland. The identification of Cryptosporidium species was performed at the 18 SSU ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and COWP loci followed by subtyping of C. parvum and C. hominis strains at GP60 gene locus. The presence of Cryptosporidium DNA at the 18 SSU rRNA locus was detected in 45/234 (19.2%) lamb feces samples and in 39/105 (37.1%) taken from goats. The following Cryptosporidium species: C. xiaoi, C. bovis, C. ubiquitum, C. parvum, and C. hominis were detected in small ruminants. Infections caused by C. xiaoi were predominant without favoring any tested animal species. Subsequent GP60 subtyping revealed the presence of C. parvum IIaA17G1R1 subtype in sheep and IIdA23G1 subtype in goats. IIdA23G1 subtype was detected in a goat host for the first time. There were no significant differences found in frequency of infections between the age groups (<3 and 3–9 weeks) of lambs (P = 0.14, α > 0.05) or goat kids (P = 0.06, α > 0.05). In addition, there was no correlation observed between the frequency in occurrence of particular parasite species and breed type in relation to native sheep breeds (F = 0.11; P = 0.990 > 0.05). In the case of goats, more breed-related differences in parasite occurrence were found. The results of this study improve our knowledge on the breed-related occurrence of Cryptosporidium infections in the population of small ruminants reared in Poland.     

Genotypic diversity of clinical Coxiella burnetii isolates from Portugal based on MST and MLVA typing

The temporal and spatial diversity of Coxiella burnetii genotypes associated with human and animal disease in Portugal was analysed using a 6-locus multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) and a 10-locus multi-spacer sequence typing (MST) panel. Fifteen cultured C. burnetii isolates from 13 Q fever patients and a stillborn goat and 6 additional PCR-positive ruminant tissue samples obtained during 2006–2011 were included in this study. Seven MLVA genotypes (types S–Y) were obtained, including 4 new MLVA types (U, V, W, and X), all corresponding to 3 MST profiles (types 4, 8, and 13) previously reported from France and Spain. MLVA types U–Y, all belonging to MST type 4, were found in acute Q fever patients from the districts of Évora, Faro, Lisbon, and Setúbal. Different MLVA types were associated with goats from Castelo Branco district (S) and chronic Q fever patients from both Castelo Branco and Lisboa districts (S and T), matching with MST types 13 and 8, respectively. In conclusion, a genotypic diversity of C. burnetii consistent with a non-outbreak situation was identified. The involvement of different genotypes in acute and chronic Q fever was found, linking one of the chronic genotypes to goats from the eastern region of the country.     

Ectoparasites of goats in three agroecologies in central Oromia, Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors for ectoparasites infestation in 979 goats in three agroecologies in central Oromia, Ethiopia from October 2009 through April 2010. The results of the study showed that of the total goats examined 487 (49.7 %) of them were infested with one or more ectoparasites. The ectoparasites identified were (16.5 %) Linognathus spp., 8.8 % Sarcoptes, 5 % Ctenocephalides spp. 11.8 % Amblyomma variegatum, 5.9 % Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi, 4.3 % Rhipicephalus pravus, 1.6 % Boophilus decoloratus, 1.8 % Rhipicephalus sanguineus, 1.3 % Rhipicephalus praetextatus, and 0.4 % Hyalomma truncatum. Statistically significant (OR?=?0.477, p?=?0.000) difference was observed in prevalence of Linognathus stenopsis among highland, lowland and midland. Significantly higher prevalence of tick infestation in the lowland than both the midland and highland agroecology was recorded. The risk of tick infestations in lowland and midland was 2.841 and 5.635 times, respectively, higher than in highlands. Age-related variation was not observed in the prevalence of both Linognathus and tick infestations in examined goats. Significantly (OR?=?7.864, p?=?0.000) higher prevalence of sarcoptic mange in the lowland than the midland was observed. Goats in lowland were 7.864 times at higher risk for sarcoptic mange than those in the midlands. Sex-related variation in the prevalence of ectoparasites was never recorded in goats. Significantly higher prevalence of sarcoptic mange (OR?=?0.266, p?=?0.000) and Ctenocephalides spp. (OR?=?2.430, p?=?0.005) on young than adult goats was recorded. The logistic regression results showed statistically significant difference in prevalence of tick infestations (OR?=?0.565, p?=?0.000) and sarcoptic mange (OR?=?0.582, p?=?0.003) between goats with poor and good body condition. Further studies on role of ectoparasites in transmission of diseases to goats, comparative prevalence and load, and the importance of goats as alternative hosts in different agroecology and management systems in Ethiopia are recommended so as to design applicable control program in the country. Furthermore, the threat of ectoparasites on overall productivity of goats and the tanning industry warrants detail studies and urgent control intervention.     

Long-term serological follow-up after primary Coxiella burnetii infection in patients with vascular risk factors for chronic Q fever

We evaluated the long-term serological follow-up of patients with vascular risk factors for chronic Q fever that were previously Coxiella burnetii seropositive. C. burnetii phase I IgG titers were reevaluated in patients that gave informed consent or retrospectively collected in patients already deceased or lost to follow-up. Of 107 patients, 25 (23.4%) became seronegative, 77 (72.0%) retained a profile of past resolved Q fever infection, and five (4.7%) developed chronic Q fever. We urge clinicians to stay vigilant for chronic Q fever beyond two years after primary infection and perform serological testing based on clinical presentation.

     

Dysregulation of Serum Gamma Interferon Levels in Vascular Chronic Q Fever Patients Provides Insights into Disease Pathogenesis

A large community outbreak of Q fever occurred in the Netherlands in the period 2007 to 2010. Some of the infected patients developed chronic Q fever, which typically includes pathogen dissemination to predisposed cardiovascular sites, with potentially fatal consequences. To identify the immune mechanisms responsible for ineffective clearance of Coxiella burnetii in patients who developed chronic Q fever, we compared serum concentrations of 47 inflammation-associated markers among patients with acute Q fever, vascular chronic Q fever, and past resolved Q fever. Serum levels of gamma interferon were strongly increased in acute but not in vascular chronic Q fever patients, compared to past resolved Q fever patients. Interleukin-18 levels showed a comparable increase in acute as well as vascular chronic Q fever patients. Additionally, vascular chronic Q fever patients had lower serum levels of gamma interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) than did acute Q fever patients. Serum responses for these and other markers indicate that type I immune responses to C. burnetii are affected in chronic Q fever patients. This may be attributed to an affected immune system in cardiovascular patients, which enables local C. burnetii replication at affected cardiovascular sites.     

Frequency distribution of hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting bubaline population of district Toba Tek Singh, Punjab, Pakistan

The current research was conducted to define the epidemiological parameters related to the prevalence and associated risk factors of tick infestation in buffaloes in the Toba Tek Singh District of central Punjab, Pakistan. The prevalence of ticks on buffaloes was 31.21 % (352/1,128). Among the species of ticks, the prevalence of Hyalomma marginatum (75.56 %; 266/352) was higher (P?<?0.05; odd’s ratios (OR)?=?3.09) than Rhipicephalus microplus (24.44 %; 86/352). Female buffaloes (69.60 %; 245/352) and younger animals (59.09 %; 208/352) were more heavily infested than males (30.40 %; 107/352) and adult animals (40.91 %; 144/352), respectively, whereas breed was not a determinant (P?>?0.05). With regard to management and husbandry practices, the prevalence of ticks was higher in animals kept on uncemented flooring (54.55 %; 192/352; OR?=?1.90) followed in order by partially cemented (28.69 %; 101/352; OR?=?1.71) and fully cemented flooring (16.76 %; 59/352). With regard to feeding systems, grazing animals (64.20 %; 226/352) were more burdened compared to stall-fed animals (35.80 %; 126/352). The highest tick prevalence was recorded in closed housing systems (52.27 %; 184/352), followed by semi-closed (34.09 %; 120/352; OR?=?1.53), and open housing systems (13.64 %; 48/352). Rope-tied animals (70.73 %; 249/352) were more parasitized (P?>?0.05) than open (29.27 %; 103/352). Prevalence in the study district was highest in tehsil Kamalia followed in order by T.T. Singh and Gojra. The primary body area of infestation by ticks (head, neck, ear, dewlap, back, abdomen, foreleg, shoulder, hind leg, congenital areas, and tail) ranged from highest at inside thigh (17 %) to lowest at rump. In the present survey, the highest prevalence was recorded in July and lowest in December. Comparison of hematological changes showed remarkable differences between infested and non-infested animals, in the form of low values of infested animals, whereas an increment in biochemical parameter values was observed in tick-infested animals. The present study provides significant data to enhance planning for tick control program in the study area.     

Emerging evidence for Q fever in humans in Denmark: role of contact with dairy cattle

Until recently, Q fever was notified in very low numbers annually in Denmark and it was always considered to be acquired abroad. Preliminary reports now describe Coxiella burnetii in milk samples from Danish dairy cattle. Serum samples of a large cohort of farmers, veterinarians, inseminators and hoof trimmers, all having occupational contact with dairy cattle, were tested for the presence of IgG to phase I and phase II antigens of C. burnetii. In 39 of 359 individuals studied (11%), the presence of antibodies to C. burnetii was found. Veterinarians had the highest seropositivity rate (36%). This survey suggests that C. burnetii is a recently recognized domestic infection in Denmark and that risk of infection is associated with occupation.     

High Coxiella burnetii DNA Load in Serum during Acute Q Fever Is Associated with Progression to a Serologic Profile Indicative of Chronic Q Fever

PCR is very effective in diagnosing acute Q fever in the early stages of infection, when bacterial DNA is present in the bloodstream but antibodies have not yet developed. The objective of this study was to further analyze the diagnostic value of semiquantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) in diagnosing acute Q fever in an outbreak situation. At the Jeroen Bosch Hospital, in 2009, qPCR testing for Coxiella burnetii DNA was performed for 2,715 patients suspected of having acute Q fever (positive, n = 385; negative, n = 2,330). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of the qPCR assay were calculated for patients with negative qPCR results with a follow-up sample obtained within 14 days (n = 305) and qPCR-positive patients with at least one follow-up sample (n = 369). The correctness of the qPCR result was based on immunofluorescence assay results for samples submitted for qPCR and follow-up testing. The sensitivity of the Q fever qPCR assay was 92.2%, specificity 98.9%, PPV 99.2%, and NPV 89.8%. Patients who later developed serologic profiles indicative of chronic Q fever infection had significantly higher C. burnetii DNA loads during the acute phase than did patients who did not (P < 0.001). qPCR testing is a valuable tool for the diagnosis of acute Q fever and should be used in outbreak situations when the onset of symptoms is <15 days earlier. Special attention is needed in the follow-up monitoring of patients with high C. burnetii DNA loads during the acute phase, as this might be an indicator for the development of a serologic profile indicative of chronic infection.     

The sexual dimorphism of anticardiolipin autoantibodies in acute Q fever patients

ObjectivesQ fever is a zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii which affects men more than women (sex ratio men/women: 2.2). Acute Q fever complications are associated with elevation of anticardiolipin (aCL) antibodies. Here, we investigate the sexual dimorphism of aCL antibodies during acute C. burnetii infection.MethodsIgG aCL antibodies were evaluated at the time of Q fever serological diagnosis with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Results were analysed according to sex.ResultsAmong the 1323 patients with Q fever tested for aCL, 1013 had acute Q fever (692 men/321 women) and 310 had persistent focalized infection (226 men/84 women). In cases of acute Q fever, men presented a significantly higher proportion of positive aCL antibodies (351/692, 50.7%) than women (113/321, 35.2%) (p <0.05). In addition, men had significantly higher aCL antibodies levels than women (p <0.001).ConclusionsWe highlight a relationship between sex and markers of autoimmunity during Q fever. Further investigations are necessary to better understand the mechanisms of this sexual dimorphism.     

Prevalence and transmission of haemolytic Gallibacterium species in chicken production systems with different biosecurity levels

A stratified cross-sectional study consisting of four strata of biosecurity based on production system type, including organic/free-range layer, battery-cage layer, layer parent, broiler parent and broiler grandparentflocks, was performed to estimate the prevalence of haemolytic Gallibacterium spp. Thirty birds were sampled by tracheal and cloacal swabs in each flock. A flock was considered infected when just one bird tested positive. A total of 27 flocks was included in the study. All chickens from the broiler grandparent flocks sampled negative, whereas 28% of the broiler parents, 40% of the layer parents, 67% of the battery-cage layers and 96% of the organic/free-range chickens sampled positive. A total of 95.9% (standard deviation ± 7.6%) of birds from infected flocks was colonized by haemolytic Gallibacterium species. A significantly higher number of tracheal swabs was positive compared with cloacal swabs. The probability of vertical transfer was investigated by sampling offspring from an infected as well as a non-infected parent flock. None of the samples were found positive. In conclusion, we showed that haemolytic Gallibacterium spp. were widely distributed within the Danish commercial chicken production systems. However, prevalence proportions were highly influenced by the production system and found to be significantly associated with the biosecurity level observed in the flocks. In general, flock infections resembled an 'all or none' type of colonization as practically all of the chickens in infected flocks sampled positive. There was no evidence of vertical transmission of Gallibacterium.     

Molecular identification of Theileria and Babesia in sheep and goats in the Black Sea Region in Turkey

This study was carried out to investigate presence and distribution of Theileria and Babesia species via microscopic examination and reverse line blotting (RLB) techniques in sheep and goats in the Black Sea region of Turkey. For this purpose, 1,128 blood samples (869 sheep and 259 goats) were collected by active surveillance from sheep and goats in different provinces of various cities in the region in the years 2010 and 2011. Smears were prepared from the blood samples, stained with Giemsa, and examined under the light microscope for Theileria and Babesia piroplasms. The genomic DNAs were extracted from blood samples. The length of 360–430-bp fragment in the variable V4 region of 18S SSU rRNA gene of Theileria and Babesia species was amplified using the gDNAs. The polymerase chain reaction products were hybridized to the membrane-connected species-specific probes. A total of 38 animals (3.37 %) including 34 sheep (3.91 %) and 4 goats (1.54 %) were found to be positive for Theileria spp. piroplasms in microscopic examination of smears while Babesia spp. piroplasm could not detected. Infection rates were 34.64 % in sheep, 10.04 % in goats, and totally 28.99 % for Theileria ovis while 0.58 % in sheep and totally 0.44 % for Babesia ovis. However, Theileria sp. OT3 was detected in 2.65 % of sheep and 2.04 % of all animals; besides Theileria sp., MK had 0.58 % prevalence in sheep and 0.77 % in goats, with a total 0.62 % with RLB. Although T. ovis and Theileria sp. MK were determined in both sheep and goats, B. ovis and Theileria sp. OT3 were observed only in the sheep. These results provide the first detailed molecular data for sheep and goat theileriosis and babesiosis in the region.     

Q fever during pregnancy: a narrative review

BackgroundCoxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, causes abortions in animals. Its effects on pregnancy in humans and the management of Q fever in pregnancy are uncertain.ObjectivesTo summarize data on the effects of Q fever on pregnancy in women, the effects of pregnancy on Q fever complications and the optimal screening and management of Q fever during pregnancy.SourcesWe searched for studies reporting on Q fever during pregnancy in women. We included randomized and observational studies, seroprevalence studies, case series and case reports, including clinical and histopathological studies.ContentThe accumulating data seems convincing that Q fever increases the risk of abortions in early pregnancy and prematurity or intrauterine fetal demise in late pregnancy. Data are based on sero-epidemiological associations of Q fever and adverse pregnancy outcomes and case reports showing the presence and effects of C. burnetii on the placenta and the fetus. Based on observational studies, acquisition of Q fever during pregnancy also increases the risk for maternal chronic Q fever. Treatment of recently infected women seems to improve these outcomes, based on case series only, but the optimal duration of treatment has not been studied. The efficacy of active surveillance during pregnancy, timing and frequency have not been determined in high-endemicity settings. Obstetricians should be aware of the risk for transmission of the disease during delivery. Currently available data are based mostly on case series and case reports, with some discrepancy between the French experience in chronic endemicity settings and Dutch experience in outbreak settings.ImplicationsSince infection with Q fever is largely asymptomatic, we believe that the accumulating information linking Q fever to adverse pregnancy outcomes justifies screening in the high-endemicity setting and treatment of infected women. High-quality research addressing the questions raised by this review is needed to determine the optimal public health policy.