Review: anti-CTLA-4 antibody ipilimumab: case studies of clinical response and immune-related adverse events

The immune system is a powerful natural agent against cancer. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), a key negative regulator of T-cell responses, can restrict the antitumor immune response. Ipilimumab (MDX-010) is a fully human, monoclonal antibody that overcomes CTLA-4-mediated T-cell suppression to enhance the immune response against tumors. Preclinical and early clinical studies of patients with advanced melanoma show that ipilimumab promotes antitumor activity as monotherapy and in combination with treatments such as chemotherapy, vaccines, or cytokines. Emerging data on the kinetics of response to ipilimumab and associated adverse events are increasing our understanding about how to manage patients treated with this therapy. For example, short-term tumor progression prior to delayed regression has been observed in ipilimumab-treated patients, and objective responses may be of prolonged duration. In some patients clinical improvement manifests as stable disease, which may also extend for months or years. Immune-related adverse events (IRAEs) have been observed in patients after CTLA-4 blockade and most likely reflect the drug mechanism of action and corresponding effects on the immune system. Early clinical data suggest a correlation between IRAEs and response to ipilimumab treatment. This paper briefly reviews the results from several ongoing and completed ipilimumab clinical trials, provides a synopsis of current trials, and presents several cases that demonstrate the kinetics of antitumor responses and the relationship to IRAEs in patients receiving ipilimumab.     

Management of immune-related adverse events resulting from immune checkpoint blockade

Introduction: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are now a standard of care in the treatment of many cancers leading to durable responses in patients with metastatic disease. These agents are generally well tolerated but may lead to the occurrence of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). As any organ may be affected, clinicians should be aware of the broad range of clinical manifestations and symptoms and keep in mind that toxicities may occur late, at any point along a patient’s treatment course. Although the most common irAEs are rarely severe, some of them may be associated with great morbidity and even become life-threatening. The rate of occurrence, type and severity of irAEs may vary with the type of ICI; thus, grade 3 and 4 irAEs are reported in more than 55% of patients treated with the combination of ipilimumab 3 mg/kg and nivolumab 1 mg/kg.

Area covered: This review presents the management of irAEs resulting from checkpoint blockade, with a focus on rare irAEs.

Expert commentary: With the development of immuno-oncology and the expanding role of ICI, physicians have learnt to diagnose and treat most of the irAEs that can occur. This review provides an overview of current guidelines, previously published studies and our multidisciplinary team based practices.     

肿瘤免疫治疗中不可忽视的免疫相关不良反应

免疫检查点抑制剂已在我国被批准进入临床应用,随之而来的免疫相关不良反应(irAE)需引起临床医师的关注。文章总结了针对抗程序性细胞死亡蛋白和程序性细胞死亡蛋白配体抗体引起的irAE发病率、特征性临床表现以及治疗方法,探讨了其可能的发病机理、不同类型恶性肿瘤发病率的差别、影响因素以及未来的研究方向,为临床肿瘤医师对肿瘤irAE的识别和监控加以指导。     

sST2在免疫检查点抑制剂相关不良反应风险预测中的价值

背景与目的:免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitor,ICI)在过去10年深刻改变了抗肿瘤治疗的格局,显著延长了恶性肿瘤患者的生存期。但随着其在临床上的广泛使用,免疫治疗相关不良反应(immune-related adverse event,irAE)也逐渐被报道和关注,但目前尚缺乏可靠的生物学指标用于预测irAE的发生风险。本文通过联合多个生物学指标,构建了用于预测肿瘤患者接受ICI治疗后发生irAE风险的模型。方法:共纳入2018年10月—2020年12月于复旦大学附属中山医院肿瘤内科住院治疗的恶性肿瘤患者共91例,将纳入研究的患者按照是否在接受ICI治疗后出现G2级别以上的irAE分为irAE组(n=13)和对照组(n=78)。回顾性分析了两组患者在接受ICI治疗前后包括血清可溶性肿瘤抑制因子(soluble form of suppression of tumorigenicity-2,sST2)、预后营养指数(prognostic nutritional index,PNI)及血小板与淋巴细胞比例(neutrophil to lymphocyt...     

真实世界中免疫检查点抑制剂导致免疫相关不良反应病例分析

目的:探讨免疫检查点抑制剂（immune checkpoint inhibitors,ICIs）导致的免疫相关不良反应（immune-related adverse events,irAEs）的发生情况。方法:收集并分析2018年1月至2021年3月我院irAEs的具体情况,包括基本资料、用药情况、不良反应具体情况、治疗情况等。结果:63例irAEs,包括肺毒性3例、肝脏毒性9例、皮肤毒性23例、内分泌毒性15例、神经毒性4例、肾毒性3例、胃肠毒性1例、心脏毒性2例、血液毒性1例、眼毒性2例。男性47例,女性16例,中位发病年龄61岁,不良反应中位发生时间6.6周,17例需要大剂量糖皮质激素治疗。毒性级别1-2级49例,3-4级13例,5级1例。少见irAEs 14例,1例死于心肌炎。结论:irAEs涉及的器官或系统较多,多数在3级以下。常见不良反应预后较好。少见irAEs中,心肌炎可能导致患者死亡,需要临床予以重视。     

Analysis of immune-related adverse events in gastrointestinal malignancy patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors are becoming an increasingly common treatment for advanced gastrointestinal cancer, but the possibility of immune-related adverse events has raised concerns. This study aimed to evaluate the risks of immune-related adverse events between patients who received immune checkpoint inhibitors and those who received chemotherapy among different types of gastrointestinal cancer. The study utilized data from the multicenter TriNetX database in the United States covering the period between 2015 and 2022. Hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals were used to describe the relative hazard of immune-related adverse events based on comparing time-to-event rates. Our study revealed that the incidence of immune-related adverse events was significantly higher in patients who received immune checkpoint inhibitors and chemotherapy compared to those who received chemotherapy only in treating gastrointestinal cancer. CTLA-4 inhibitors tended to have a higher rate of immune-related adverse events compared to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. Our study found a lower mortality rate among patients who developed immune-related adverse events compared to those who did not after propensity score matching (HR, 0.661; 95% CI 0.620–0.704; p < .01). We provide important real-world data on the incidence and impact of immune-related adverse events in patients with advanced gastrointestinal cancer treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Our study's results support clinicians in making informed decisions about the potential benefits and risks of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy for patients with gastrointestinal cancer.     

Patterns of onset and resolution of immune‐related adverse events of special interest with ipilimumab

BACKGROUND:

Ipilimumab 3 mg/kg was the first agent to demonstrate improved survival in previously treated patients with metastatic melanoma in a phase 3 trial (MDX010‐20). Ipilimumab produced a characteristic spectrum of immune‐related adverse events (irAEs) of special interest, consistent with its immune‐based mechanism of action.

METHODS:

In MDX010‐20, 676 previously treated patients were randomized 3:1:1 to receive ipilimumab 3 mg/kg plus the glycoprotein 100 melanoma antigen vaccine (gp100), ipilimumab 3 mg/kg + placebo, or gp100 vaccine + placebo. For the current report, the authors conducted a detailed analysis of the time to onset and resolution of irAEs associated with ipilimumab therapy.

RESULTS:

Grade 2 through 5 irAEs generally developed during the induction phase of treatment (0‐12 weeks). Most, including grade 3/4 irAEs, were reversible when managed with treatment guidelines using vigilant monitoring and corticosteroids. The median time to resolution (to grade 1 or 0 or to the grade at baseline) of irAEs that had an onset during the induction phase was approximately 6 weeks for grade 2 through 4 irAEs and 8 weeks for grade 3 and 4 irAEs. Across the entire study duration, most grade 2 through 4 irAEs resolved within 12 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS:

Most ipilimumab‐associated irAEs, including grade 3/4 symptoms, developed within 12 weeks of initial dosing and resolved within 12 weeks of onset. IrAEs were well characterized in their evolution and could be managed using published algorithms. Cancer 2013. © 2013 American Cancer Society.     

Severe immune-related adverse events are common with sequential PD-(L)1 blockade and osimertinib

BackgroundConcurrent programmed death-ligand-1 (PD-(L)1) plus osimertinib is associated with severe immune related adverse events (irAE) in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Now that PD-(L)1 inhibitors are routinely used as adjuvant and first-line treatments, sequential PD-(L)1 inhibition followed by osimertinib use may become more frequent and have unforeseen serious toxicity.MethodsWe identified patients with EGFR-mutant NSCLC who were treated with PD-(L)1 blockade and EGFR- tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), irrespective of drug or sequence of administration (total n = 126). Patient records were reviewed to identify severe (NCI-CTCAE v5.0 grades 3–4) toxicity.ResultsFifteen percent [6 of 41, 95% confidence interval (CI) 7% to 29%] of all patients treated with sequential PD-(L)1 blockade followed later by osimertinib developed a severe irAE. Severe irAEs were most common among those who began osimertinib within 3 months of prior PD-(L)1 blockade (5 of 21, 24%, 95% CI 10% to 45%), as compared with >3–12 months (1 of 8, 13%, 95% CI 0% to 50%), >12 months (0 of 12, 0%, 95% CI 0% to 28%). By contrast, no severe irAEs were identified among patients treated with osimertinib followed by PD-(L)1 (0 of 29, 95% CI 0% to 14%) or PD-(L)1 followed by other EGFR-TKIs (afatinib or erlotinib, 0 of 27, 95% CI 0% to 15%). IrAEs occurred at a median onset of 20 days after osimertinib (range 14–167 days). All patients with irAEs required steroids and most required hospitalization.ConclusionPD-(L)1 blockade followed by osimertinib is associated with severe irAE and is most frequent among patients who recently received PD-(L)1 blockade. No irAEs were observed when osimertinib preceded PD-(L)1 blockade or when PD-(L)1 was followed by other EGFR-TKIs. This association appears to be specific to osimertinib, as no severe irAEs occurred with administration of other EGFR-TKIs.     

Tissue-resident memory T cells in immunotherapy and immune-related adverse events by immune checkpoint inhibitor

Tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) are a specialized subset of T cells that reside in tissues and provide long-term protective immunity against pathogens that enter the body through that specific tissue. TRM cells have specific phenotype and reside preferentially in barrier tissues. Recent studies have revealed that TRM cells are the main target of immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy since their role in cancer immunosurveillance. Furthermore, TRM cells also play a crucial part in pathogenesis of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Here, we provide a concise review of biological characteristics of TRM cells, and the major advances and recent findings regarding their involvement in immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy and the corresponding irAEs.     

中医药在肿瘤免疫治疗及相关不良反应中应用的研究进展

恶性肿瘤严重威胁人类生命健康,其发生发展与机体免疫功能息息相关。随着肿瘤免疫学的发展,免疫治疗成为继手术、放化疗及靶向治疗后又一治疗手段。相比于传统治疗方式,肿瘤免疫治疗能显著延长患者的生存期,但在治疗过程中仍可出现皮肤、胃肠道毒性等免疫相关不良反应。中医药是肿瘤综合治疗中不可或缺的一部分,其可参与抗肿瘤治疗的全过程。研究发现中医与肿瘤免疫关系密切,其通过调节机体免疫功能或肿瘤免疫微环境来调控肿瘤免疫,在缓解免疫相关不良反应方面也有一定的疗效。现就中医与肿瘤免疫的关系、中医药调节肿瘤免疫及常见免疫相关不良反应方面的研究进展作一综述。     

Optimal management of immune-related adverse events resulting from treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors: a review and update

Over the last two decades, molecular-targeted agents have become mainstream treatment for many types of malignancies and have improved the overall survival of patients. However, most patients eventually develop resistance to these targeted therapies. Recently, immunotherapies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors have revolutionized the treatment paradigm for many types of malignancies. Immune checkpoint inhibitors have been approved for treatment of melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, renal cell carcinoma, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, bladder cancer and gastric cancer. However, oncologists have been faced with immune-related adverse events caused by immune checkpoint inhibitors; these are generally mild but can be fatal in some cases. Because immune checkpoint inhibitors have distinct toxicity profiles from those of chemotherapy or targeted therapy, many oncologists are not familiar with the principles for optimal management of immune-related adverse events, which require early recognition and appropriate treatment without delay. To achieve this, oncologists must educate patients and health-care workers, develop checklists of appropriate tests for immune-related adverse events and collaborate closely with organ specialists. Clinical questions that remain include whether immune checkpoint inhibitors should be administered to patients with autoimmune disease and whether patients for whom immune-related adverse events lead to delays in immunotherapy should be retreated. In addition, the predicted use of combination immunotherapies in the near future means that oncologists will face a higher incidence and severity of immune-related adverse events. This review provides an overview of the optimal management of immune-related adverse events attributed to immune checkpoint inhibitors.     

Ferritin as a diagnostic,differential diagnostic,and prognostic marker for immune-related adverse events

Objective:Distinguishing immune-related adverse events (irAEs) caused by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) from the AEs caused by chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or infection is highly difficult. This study offers new insights into evaluating the diagnosis, differential diagnostic, and prognostic value of ferritin for irAEs induced by ICIs.Methods:From December 1, 2018, to April 1, 2019, we examined 318 patients with malignant tumors who received serum ferritin monitoring. The cohort comprised 231 patients treated with PD-1 inhibitor or combination with chemotherapy, and 87 patients treated with chemotherapy. Of the 231 patients, 90 had irAEs (irAE group), 70 had non-irAEs (non-irAE group), 67 had no AEs (no irAE-non irAE group), and 4 had unclassified AEs. In the 87 patients, 60 had AEs (AE group), and 27 had no AEs (no AE group). Statistical analyses were conducted with nonparametric Mann-Whitney tests.Results:At the onset of AEs in the irAE group, ferritin (normal range, 35–150 µg/L) rose to a median of 927 µg/L (range, 117–17,825 µg/L) from 86 µg/L at baseline (range, 29–421 µg/L) (P < 0.001). Ferritin levels at the onset of AEs in the irAE group were significantly higher than those in the non-irAE group (median, 81 µg/L; range, 32–478 µg/L) (P < 0.001) and the AE group (median, 103 µg/L; range, 23–712 µg/L) (P < 0.001). After treatment in the irAE group, ferritin continuously decreased to a normal range in recovered patients, showed no significant changes in stable patients, and continued to rise in patients who died.Conclusions:Ferritin can be used as a diagnostic, differential diagnostic, and prognostic marker for irAEs in patients treated with ICIs.     

卡瑞利珠单抗治疗复发或晚期转移性食管鳞癌临床疗效及免疫相关不良反应观察

目的:探讨卡瑞利珠单抗治疗复发或晚期转移性食管鳞癌的临床疗效以及免疫相关不良反应。方法:回顾性分析88例复发或晚期转移性食管鳞癌患者的治疗经过和疗效,将患者随机分为免疫联合化疗组、化疗组各44例,统计客观缓解率（objective remission rate,ORR)、疾病控制率(disease control rate,DCR)、无进展生存期(progress free survival,PFS)、总生存期（overall survival,OS）,用Kaplan-Meier法绘制生存曲线,用log-rank检验进行影响PFS和OS的单因素分析、COX风险回归模型进行多因素分析,并观察免疫相关不良反应。结果:免疫联合化疗组和化疗组的ORR分别为8例（18%）和4例（9%）,DCR分别为31例（70%）和20例（45%）,免疫联合化疗较单纯化疗可延长患者mPFS（5.5个月vs 3.5个月,P=0.007）和mOS（11.25个月vs 7.75个月,P＜0.001）。ECOG评分、肿瘤分化程度和转移部位数量是PFS和OS的影响因素。免疫相关不良反应主要有毛细血管增生症、甲状腺功能减低、乏力、食欲减退等,但多为1-2级,经对症处理后均可缓解。结论:卡瑞利珠单抗联合化疗较单纯化疗在复发或晚期转移性食管鳞癌中可明显延长PFS和OS,临床疗效显著,且安全性良好。     

抗PD-1抗体治疗患者发生免疫相关不良反应前后白细胞、中性粒细胞变化的分析

目的：通过对比免疫相关不良反应（irAE）发生前后血常规中主要指标的变化,为鉴别诊断irAE 及感染性炎症提供新依据。方法：回顾性分析201 例2018 年8月至2022 年6月在河南省肿瘤医院接受抗PD-1抗体治疗后出现irAE 的肿瘤患者的临床资料,包括抗PD-1抗体治疗前、发生irAE前及irAE后血常规的主要指标,采用配对t检验分析治疗前后血常规指标值的统计学差异。采用定性变量的配对c2检验分析治疗前后血常规指标值的阳性率（高于正常值的比例）的统计学差异。结果：从201 例患者中观察到了258 次irAE,其中27 例（13.4%）患者发生了2种及以上类型的irAE,214 次（82.94%）irAE 未引起发热;irAE 发生后与抗PD-1抗体治疗前相比,白细胞计数（t=1.087, P=0.278）、中性粒细胞计数（t=0.959, P=0.338）及中性粒细胞百分比（t=0.817,P=0.414）未见明显升高,且三指标高于正常值的病例数分别为28 vs 38（χ2=1.737,P=0.187）、32 vs 44（χ2=2.222,P=0.136）、45 vs 55（χ2=1.240,P=0.265）,差异均无统计学意义。结论：irAE 发生后患者外周血白细胞计数、中性粒细胞计数及中性粒细胞百分比无明显变化,这对鉴别诊断感染性炎症可能具有参考意义。     

Tumour- and class-specific patterns of immune-related adverse events of immune checkpoint inhibitors: a systematic review

BackgroundImmune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) or its ligand (PD-L1) produce unique toxicity profiles. The objective of this review was to identify patterns and incidence of immune-related adverse events (irAE) based on tumour type and ICI class.MethodsMedline, EMBASE and COCHRANE databases were searched to identify prospective monotherapy trials of ICIs from 2003 to November 2015. Paired reviewers selected studies for inclusion and extracted data. Odds ratio (OR),χ² tests and multivariable regression models were used to analyse for effect size and associations.ResultsWe identified 48 trials (6938 patients), including 26 CTLA-4, 17 PD-1, 2 PD-L1 trials, and 3 studies tested both CTLA-4 and PD-1. Grade 3/4 irAE were more common with CTLA-4 mAbs compared with PD-1 (31% versus 10%). All grades colitis (OR 8.7, 95% CI 5.8–12.9), hypophysitis (OR 6.5, 95% CI 3.0–14.3) and rash (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.8–2.3) were more frequent with CTLA-4 mAbs; whereas pneumonitis (OR 6.4, 95% CI 3.2–12.7), hypothyroidism (OR 4.3, 95% CI 2.9–6.3), arthralgia (OR 3.5, 95% CI 2.6–4.8) and vitiligo (OR 3.5, 95% CI 2.3–5.3) were more common with PD-1 mAbs. Comparison of irAE from the three most studied tumour types in PD-1 mAbs trials [melanoma (n = 2048), non-small-cell lung cancer (n = 1030) and renal cell carcinoma (n = 573)] showed melanoma patients had a higher frequency of gastrointestinal and skin irAE and lower frequency of pneumonitis.DiscussionCTLA-4 and PD-1 mAbs have distinct irAE profiles. Different immune microenvironments may drive histology-specific irAE patterns. Other tumour-dependent irAE profiles may be identified as data emerge from ICI trials.