Predictors of harsh parenting practices in parents of children with disabilities

International research indicates that children with disabilities are more exposed to negative parenting than their non-disabled peers. The mechanisms behind this increased risk are likely operating at the levels of the individual child, the family and the broader social context. The present study investigated harsh parenting practices using self-report data from Swedish parents of children with disabilities (30 mothers and 14 fathers) and control parents (145 mothers and 25 fathers). Sweden provides an interesting context for the current research since it has outlawed physical punishment of children, displays comparatively small gaps in socio-economic circumstances and has implemented an extensive welfare system addressing the needs of children with disabilities and their families. There was no difference in harsh parenting practices between parents of children with disabilities and control parents. However, more fathers of children with disabilities than control fathers admitted use of violence at least once. Within the group of parents of children with disabilities, child disruptive behaviour problems predicted harsh parenting practices. Socio-economic disadvantage did not predict harsh parenting practices and possible explanations for this absent finding are discussed. Clinical and policy implications are discussed.     

The role of parenting in the relationship between childhood eating problems and broader behaviour problems

Objective Previous research has established that childhood feeding and eating problems are often related to other behavioural difficulties. Parenting practices have been implicated in both eating behaviour and broader behaviour problems. The aim of this study was to examine whether the relationship between eating and behaviour problems could be explained in part by parenting style and practices. Methods Seventy‐seven mothers of 3‐ to 8‐year‐old children completed measures of children's eating behaviours, behaviour problems, parenting style and feeding practices. Results Eating behaviours (food responsiveness, emotional under‐eating, fussiness) and behaviour problems (conduct problems, hyperactivity, total difficulties) were significantly correlated, but when parenting style and feeding practices were controlled for, significant associations disappeared. Conclusions Although the findings are limited because of a relatively low response rate, in non‐clinical groups, the perceived commonality between eating and behaviour problems may be explained by parenting.     

The relationship between maternal self-efficacy and parenting practices: implications for parent training

The present study examined the relationship between maternal self-efficacy, dysfunctional discipline practices and child conduct problems. Specifically, three levels of self-efficacy, global, domain and task-specific self-efficacy, were assessed in mothers of 2- to 8-year-old children with conduct problems (clinic group, n=45) and non-clinic mothers from the community (non-clinic group, n=79). Measures of global, domain and task-specific self-efficacy were completed by mothers. Clinic mothers reported significantly lower self-efficacy than non-clinic mothers for all but one of the parenting tasks assessed. Both groups of mothers reported lowest self-efficacy for similar parenting tasks. In the sample as a whole self-efficacy measures were significant predictors of maternal discipline style after controlling for other parent, child and risk factors. Of the self-efficacy variables behavioural self-efficacy was the best predictor of mothers discipline style. The findings support the importance of developing parenting strategies that enable parents to generalize their parenting skills to a diverse range of diverse parenting contexts both in the home and in the community.     

A new measure of toddler parenting practices and associations with attachment and mothers' sensitivity,competence, and enjoyment of parenting

Self-determination theorists argue that parents can support or thwart their children's psychological needs for relatedness, autonomy, and competence. The first aim of this study was to develop a measure to assess six dimensions of parenting theoretically linked to meeting toddlers' needs. The second aim was to examine the associations of these dimensions with mothers' sensitivity, attachment, and parenting attitudes. Participants were 61 mothers who expressed having parenting difficulties. Mothers completed questionnaires to assess their warmth, autonomy support, structure, rejection, coercion, and chaos, and self-reported their parenting competence and enjoyment. Mother–toddler interactions were observed to assess mothers’ sensitivity, and attachment was assessed with the Strange Situation. Mothers who reported less coercion were more sensitive. Most parenting practices were associated with parents' perceptions of competence and enjoyment of parenting in the expected directions. Self-reported parenting was not associated with attachment, but greater sensitivity was observed among secure compared to insecure mother–toddler pairs.     

Parental fatigue and parenting practices during early childhood: an Australian community survey

Background Parenting behaviours are influenced by a range of factors, including parental functioning. Although common, the influence of parental fatigue on parenting practices is not known. The first aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between fatigue and parenting practices. The second aim was to identify parental psychosocial factors significantly associated with fatigue. Methods A sample of 1276 Australian parents, of at least one child aged 0–5 years, completed a survey. Demographic, psychosocial (social support, coping responses) and parental sleep and self‐care information was collected. Hierarchical regression was performed to assess the contribution of fatigue (modified Fatigue Assessment Scale) to parental practices (warmth, irritability and involvement), and parenting experiences (Parenting Stress Index, Parenting Sense of Competence Scale). Hierarchical multiple regression assessed the contribution of a range of parental sleep, psychosocial (social support, coping responses) and self‐care variables to fatigue when demographic characteristics were held constant. Results Higher fatigue was significantly associated with lower parental competence (β=?0.17, P < 0.005), greater parenting stress (β= 0.21, P < 0.005) and more irritability in parent–child interactions (β= 0.11, P < 0.005). Several psychosocial characteristics were associated with higher parental fatigue, including inadequate social support, poorer diet, poorer sleep quality and ineffective coping styles including self‐blame and behaviour disengagement. Conclusions Fatigue is common, and results suggest that fatigue contributes to adverse parental practices and experiences. However, possible risk factors for higher fatigue were identified in this study, indicating opportunities for intervention, management and support for parents.     

Parenting knowledge and its role in the prediction of dysfunctional parenting and disruptive child behaviour

Background   There is a paucity of research on the relationship between parental knowledge, parenting and parenting self-efficacy, and some inconsistencies have been reported in the literature.
Method   Parent knowledge of effective parenting strategies was assessed among 68 parents from a non-clinic sample, who also completed questionnaires relating to parenting confidence, quality of parenting and child behaviour.
Results   Parents with greater knowledge tended to be less dysfunctional, and reported significantly higher education and income levels. Parenting confidence explained a significant proportion of the variance in reported frequency of disruptive child behaviour while knowledge did not independently contribute to the prediction. However, the relationship between parenting confidence and dysfunctional parenting was moderated by the level of knowledge. There was a stronger negative relationship between confidence and dysfunctional parenting when knowledge level was low than when it was high. Post hoc analyses indicated that the relationship between parenting knowledge and disruptive child behaviour was moderated by the level of parenting dysfunction. Parenting knowledge and reported frequency of disruptive behaviour were positively related when the level of dysfunction was low, but were unrelated when it was high.
Conclusions   Parents with low levels of knowledge and confidence in their parenting may be at greater risk of dysfunctional parenting and might benefit from interventions designed to enhance both knowledge and confidence. Results are interpreted in relation to inconsistencies with previous research and implications for future methodologies.     

Child behaviour and parenting in HIV/AIDS-affected families in China

Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) among families in China poses many challenges for caregivers and their children. A total of 154 caregivers of HIV/AIDS-affected children were interviewed to examine child behaviour in HIV/AIDS-affected families. Parenting skills were found to be correlated with child delinquency, and this correlation was influenced by the number of children in the family and the child's age. Illiterate caregivers were more likely to have delinquent children, and parenting skills had less of an association with child delinquency among illiterate caregivers. Study findings underscore the necessity of emphasizing good parenting skills in interventions with caregivers of HIV/AIDS-affected children in China in order to improve child behaviour and overall family well-being.     

Attachment parenting: an exploration of demographics and practices

The goal of this study was to identify parenting behaviors practiced by a self‐selected group of North American parents who identify themselves as attachment parents. This type of parenting is based on behaviors that are focused on infant needs and demands perhaps more strongly than are traditional mainstream western parenting practices. However, little is known about the demographics of the parents or the actual parameters of their behaviors. In order to further investigate these behaviors, a self‐report questionnaire was developed for use in the study. This questionnaire was included, without return postage, in an international parenting magazine, Compleat Mother. A sample of 275 mothers returned the instrument. Respondents were predominantly married, college educated and White. The respondents reported that of their infants the majority were exclusively breastfed on the infant’s cue and for an extended period of time, coslept and were held or nursed during the transition to sleep. These practices are discussed through a cross‐cultural perspective.     

Contextual risk,maternal parenting and adolescent externalizing behaviour problems: the role of emotion regulation

Background The objective of this study was to test if emotion regulation mediates the association between mothers' parenting and adolescents' externalizing behaviour problems (conduct problems and hyperactivity). The parenting dimensions were warmth, psychological control and behavioural control (measured with knowledge, monitoring and discipline). Adjustment was made for contextual risk (measured with the number of proximal adverse life events experienced), gender, age and English as an additional language. Method Data were from a UK community sample of adolescents aged 11–18 from a comprehensive school in a disadvantaged area. Results At the multivariate level, none of the parenting variables predicted hyperactivity, which was associated only with difficulties in emotion regulation, contextual risk and English as a first language. The parenting variables predicting conduct problems at the multivariate level were warmth and knowledge. Knowledge did not predict emotion regulation. However, warmth predicted emotion regulation, which was negatively associated with conduct problems. Contextual risk was a significant predictor of both difficulties in emotion regulation and externalizing behaviour problems. Its effect on conduct problems was independent of parenting and was not via its association with difficulties in emotion regulation. Conclusions The findings add to the evidence for the importance of maternal warmth and contextual risk for both regulated emotion and regulated behaviour. The small maternal control effects on both emotion regulation and externalizing behaviour could suggest the importance of paternal control for adolescent outcomes.     

Identifying and clarifying values and reason statements that promote effective food parenting practices, using intensive interviews

Objective

Generate and test parents’ understanding of values and associated reason statements to encourage effective food parenting practices.

Methods

This study was cross-sectional. Sixteen parents from different ethnic groups (African American, white, and Hispanic) living with their 3- to 5-year-old child were recruited. Interested parents were directed to a Web site, where they provided screening information and informed consent. Two types of telephone interviews were used: semistructured intensive interviews and cognitive interviews.

Results

The most common core values identified in the semistructured interview were religion/spirituality, family, and health, which appeared invariant across parent ethnicity. Parent responses to cognitive interviews enabled rephrasing of statements that were not well understood, the list of values was increased, and reason statements were added to cover the spectrum cited by parents.

Conclusions and Implications

Values and reason statements will be used to tailor intrinsic motivational messages for effective food parenting practices.     

The relationship between parenting and internalizing behaviours of children: a systematic review

It is well-documented that poor parenting practices result in negative emotional outcomes in children. Specifically, this review seeks to explore the relationship between parenting practices and internalization symptomology. This study utilized a systematic review and an appraisal tool was developed in order to ensure that included articles maintained high methodological rigour. Biomed Central, PsychArticles, Academic Search Complete, Eric, Sage and SocIndex databases were searched. After yielding 1002 articles in the initial search strategy, 39 articles were appraised and a total of 21 empirical studies were used for data extraction. In all, 13 articles indicated that some forms of poor parenting practices are related to internalizing behaviours. For example, over-involved parenting, spanking endorsement, over-reactive parenting, insecurely attached children, authoritarian parenting and permissive parenting are all linked to internalizing behaviours in children. Two articles reported a negative relationship between authoritative parenting and internalizing symptoms. This systematic review does indicate a relationship between parent–child relations and internalizing symptoms in children. In several studies, the complexities of this relationship remain unknown, and warrant further attention.     

Associations between perceived teaching behaviours and affect in upper elementary school students

We explored the associations between student-perceived teaching behaviours and negative affect (NA) and positive affect (PA) in upper elementary age students, both before and after controlling for perceived parenting behaviours. The Teaching Behaviour Questionnaire, the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children were completed by 777 third to fifth graders in nine elementary schools. Using two-level hierarchical linear model analyses, we found that (a) perceived instructional teaching behaviour was negatively associated with NA and positively associated with PA; (b) perceived organizational behaviour was not associated with either; (c) perceived socio-emotional teaching behaviour was positively associated with both; (d) perceived negative teaching behaviour was positively associated with NA but not associated with PA. When parenting behaviours were controlled for, the associations with NA but not with PA held up. We discuss the implications of the findings for education and mental health personnel.     

Variations in perceived parenting education preferences: a person-centred approach

Parenting education needs assessment surveys were collected from a large group of the parents or caregivers of 698 0–5-year-old children in southern Nevada. Survey questions addressed parenting education interests, family characteristics, and preferred delivery methods of parenting education. Cluster analysis was used to empirically determine if varying interest in parenting education topics would reflect distinct patterns of parents’ perception, and revealed a three-cluster solution that best fits the data. The three clusters differed on parents' or caregivers’ perception of interest in general child-centred topics, specific child-centred topics, and self-, family-, or environment-centred topics. Clusters also differentiated the parents or caregivers by family characteristics and preferred delivery methods of parenting education. The implications of these results for understanding various patterns of parents' perceived interests as well as their relation to family characteristics and preferred delivery methods of parenting education are discussed.     

Child care and social support modify the association between maternal depressive symptoms and early childhood behaviour problems: a US national study

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the presence and patterns of modification effects of the sex of the child, social support, and childcare on the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and child behaviour problems at two developmental stages. DESIGN: Analyses are based on prospective longitudinal data from the study of early child care. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1216 families were drawn from 10 locations across the USA. Mothers were age 18 or older at the time of the study child's birth and had completed outcome measures for at least one follow up time point (24 months, 36 months). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Child internalising and externalising behaviour problems assessed at the child's age of 24 months and 36 months, as reported by the mother. RESULTS: Results from generalised estimating equation analyses showed that the association between child externalising behaviour problems and maternal depressive symptoms varied according to the social support received by the mother (p<0.05). Overall, social support mitigated the relation, but protective effects diminished at increasing levels of depressive symptoms. Associations between child internalising behaviour problems and maternal depressive symptoms varied according to whether or not the child received care from caregivers other than the mother (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Health providers who are working with mothers with depressive symptoms may want to examine social support that is available to mothers, especially if mothers are not severely depressed. Furthermore, recommendations to begin, continue, or perhaps increase provision of childcare from other caregivers can provide respite for mothers and opportunities for children to engage in protective interactions with others.     

Services for pre-school children with behaviour problems in a Midlands city

OBJECTIVES: To study the services for pre-school children with behaviour problems in a Midlands city and the level of co-ordination and co-operation between providers. SETTING: A socially and ethnically diverse Midlands city in the UK. METHODS: Survey methods were employed with city health visitors in order to determine their role and identify service providers. Service providers from different agencies were interviewed and data collected related to service offered, materials used, theoretical basis of interventions, referrals to and from the service, inclusion and exclusion criteria and co-ordination and co-operation with other providers. Themes were identified related to the content and process of the services using qualitative data analysis methods. Frequencies of themes were estimated for different provider groups. RESULTS: Health visitors and nursery nurses working in the primary care services were the primary point of contact for children with pre-school behaviour problems. Nursery nurses were one of the major sources of referral for children with pre-school behaviour problems and a significant majority of these providers had not received any specific training for this role. The majority of the providers used evidence-based programmes but few adhered strictly to a particular programme and instead used a mixture of materials drawn from different programmes. Many health service providers in particular offered interventions to parents on a one-to-one basis only. Most providers used behaviour modification approaches. While many providers claimed to have knowledge of other local providers and have good links, there was little evidence of co-ordination within and between agencies. CONCLUSIONS: While there appears to be high levels of activity by providers from both statutory and voluntary sectors in providing services for pre-school children with behaviour problems, there is evidence to suggest that some of the main providers of services are not being adequately prepared and supported in the role. There is a lack of co-ordination within and between services, and indication that evidence-based programmes are being modified and used in an ad hoc manner. It is concluded that surveys of this nature may be an important preliminary step in establishing co-ordinated services for the primary and secondary prevention of pre-school behaviour problems.     

Influence of family type and parenting behaviours on teenage sexual behaviour and conceptions

BACKGROUND: Longitudinal data were used to explore relations between teenage pregnancy, sexual behaviour, and family type. The study examined whether students from lone parent and/or teenage mother initiated families more commonly report sex, lack of contraception at first sex, and/or conceptions by age 15/16, and whether such associations can be explained by low parental strictness, difficult parent-child communication, and/or low parental input into sex education. Up to date longitudinal UK research on family influences on conceptions is lacking, as is longitudinal research on family influences on sexual behaviour. No previous studies have comprehensively examined effects of parenting behaviours. Unlike previous research, this study tested theories suggesting that parenting deficits among lone parent and teenage initiated families increase risk of teenage pregnancy among their children. METHODS: Secondary analysis of data from a trial of sex education. RESULTS: Girls and boys from lone parent families or having mothers who were teenagers when they were born were more likely to report sex but not lack of contraception at first sex by age 15/16. Girls and boys with mothers having them as teenagers, and boys but not girls from lone parent families, were more likely to report being involved in conceptions by age 15/16. Only the association between teenage mother family and girls' conceptions was reduced by adjusting for a parenting behaviour measure. CONCLUSIONS: Students from lone parent families or having mothers who were teenagers when they were born are more likely to report early sexual debut and conceptions by age 15/16, but this is not generally explained by parenting style.     

Family-focused weight management program for five- to nine-year-olds incorporating parenting skills training with healthy lifestyle information to support behaviour modification

This case study aims to describe how general parenting principles can be used as part of parent‐led, family‐focused child weight management that is in line with current Australian Clinical Practice Guidelines. A parent‐led, family‐focused child weight management program was designed for use by dietitians with parents of young children (five‐ to nine‐year‐olds). The program utilises the cornerstones of overweight treatment: diet, activity, behaviour modification and family support delivered in an age‐appropriate, family‐focused manner. Parents participate in 16 sessions (4 parenting‐focused, 8 lifestyle‐focused and 4 individual telephone support calls) conducted weekly, fortnightly then monthly over six months. This case study illustrates how a family used the program, resulting in reduced degree of overweight and stabilised waist circumference in the child over 12 months. In conclusion, linking parenting skills to healthy family lifestyle education provides an innovative approach to family‐focused child weight management. It addresses key Australian Clinical Practice Guidelines, works at the family level, and provides a means for dietitians to easily adopt age‐appropriate behaviour modification as part of their practice.