What Should Recreational Professionals Do When Providing Services to Elderly Immigrants?

ABSTRACT

Many studies address quality of life, life satisfaction, and well-being in later life in the United States. Asian elderly immigrants, however, have been beyond the interest of researchers in the leisure and recreation area for a long time, although there has been a dramatic influx of Asian elderly immigrants to the United States. Leisure participation by Asian elderly immigrants has been threatened by leisure barriers—language barrier, lack of support network toward new environment, and collapse of family-oriented relationship—based on acculturative procedures in a host culture. Accordingly, the goal of this paper is to stress the importance of psychosocial activity among Asian elderly immigrants, and to suggest psychosocial activity as an efficient method for recreational professionals to reduce leisure barriers of elderly immigrants by understanding their cultural values and specific life circumstances.     

Do Emergency Medical Services Dispatch Nature and Severity Codes Agree with Paramedic Field Findings?

Emergency medical services (EMS) systems increasingly seek to triage patients to alternative EMS resources. Emergency medical services dispatchers may be asked to perform this triage. New protocols may be necessary. Alternatively, existing protocols may be sufficient for this task. For an existing dispatch protocol to be sufficient, it at least must accurately categorize patient condition and severity based on an external standard. OBJECTIVE: To examine the extent to which nature codes (NCs), or patient condition codes, and severity codes (SCs) currently assigned in one urban 911 center agree with paramedic field findings. The null hypothesis was that there is no routine agreement (75%) between dispatcher-assigned NC or SC and paramedic-assigned NC or SC for the same patient using the same protocol. METHODS: Emergency medical services dispatch nature and severity code data and matching out-of-hospital data were prospectively gathered over six months. Dispatch data included the NC: caller-identified problem, and the SC: dispatcher-assessed severity. Each NC is modified by one of three SCs (1, 3, or 9): 1 is emergent, 3 is urgent, and 9 is neither. Paramedics verified and/or corrected dispatcher-assigned NCs and SCs using the same dispatch protocol. RESULTS: One thousand forty usable cases fell into 33 unique NC/SC combinations. The designation of SC 1 was assigned 275 times, SC 3 was assigned 736 times, and SC 9 was assigned 24 times. The SC was missing five times. The overall NC agreement was 0.70 (95% CI = 0.697 to 0.703). The overall SC agreement was 0.65 (95% CI = 0.645 to 0.655). The NC agreement exceeded 75% for ten (59%) NC/SC combinations. The SC agreement exceeded 75% for five (29%) NC/SC combinations. There was both NC and SC agreement for four (24%) combinations: urgent breathing problems, urgent diabetic problems, urgent falls, and urgent overdoses. The greatest NC/SC disagreement occurred within emergent and urgent traffic crashes. Paramedics adjusted SC toward lower severity 29% of the time and toward higher severity 5.4% of the time. There was no upward SC adjustment for eight (47%) combinations. CONCLUSIONS: Certain dispatcher-assigned NC and SC codes and NC/SC combinations achieved the study threshold. Overall agreement failed to achieve the threshold. The lowest SC level was rarely assigned, preventing a meaningful analysis of all severity levels.     

Evaluating an Emergency Medical Services—Initiated Nontransport System

Objective. To evaluate both factors predicting nontransport andmortality rates in an emergency medical services system with a nontransport policy. Methods. We reviewed data from 1,581 transported andnontransported patients from October 2001 to July 2003. Patients who refused transport against medical advice were excluded. Extracted data included demographics, run characteristics, chief complaint, andclinical impression. Transported andnontransported patients were compared using Mann–Whitney U or chi-square tests. Logistic regression identified factors predictive of nontransport. A Social Security Death Index search determined 30-day mortality. Results. A total of 1,501 runs involving 1,059 patients were included. Median age was 60 years (range, 0–97 years). A total of 427 (40.4%) were male; 107 (10.2%) were nonwhite. Older patients were more likely to be transported (odds ratio, 1.03; confidence interval, 1.02–1.03). Race, frequency of calls, mutual aid, or time of day did not significantly influence probability of transport. Patients with cardiovascular, respiratory, andgastrointestinal complaints were more likely to be transported than those with other conditions (P < 0.005); patients with endocrine, trauma, andmiscellaneous complaints were less likely to be transported (P < 0.003). Patients with renal, obstetrics/gynecology, andhema matology/oncology were complaints all transported. Mortality was 4.9% (confidence interval, 3.9%–6.2%) for transported patients and1.0% for those not transported (confidence interval, 0.2%–3.7%). Conclusions. Age is a determinant when deciding on transporting patients. Patients with complaints with potentially higher acuity were transported most often. Only two nontransported patients died within 30 days, although it is unknown whether initial transport would have changed their mortality. Our data suggest that emergency medical services–initiated nontransport is influenced only by age andchief complaint andmay not result in significant mortality.     

How accurate are the references in Emergency Medical Journal?

Objective

To determine the accuracy of references in Emergency Medicine Journal during 2003.

Materials and methods

All references cited in Emergency Medicine Journal during 2003 were examined carefully, and the accuracy of the citations was checked against reliable electronic and manual resources. References were categorised as correct or incorrect. The errors were classified as minor if the integrity of the reference was not greatly compromised and major if the error severely detracted from the quality of the reference.

Results

Overall, errors were found in 19% of all citations checked (n = 2561), and in 8% the errors were major and markedly detracted from the quality of the reference.

Conclusions

Citation errors reflect badly on authors and the publishing journal and may reflect underlying flaws in other areas of the research published. It is hoped that identification of this problem will lead to attempts to improve the accuracy of reference citation in the emergency medicine literature and to an improvement in the credibility of research in our specialty.     

Preventive Care in the Emergency Department: Should Emergency Departments Institute a Falls Prevention Program for Elder Patients? A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE: To perform a systematic review of the emergency medicine literature to assess the appropriateness of an intervention to identify, counsel, and refer emergency department (ED) patients >64 years old who are at high risk for falls. METHODS: The systematic review was facilitated through the use of a structured template, a companion explanatory piece, and a grading and methodological scoring system based on published criteria for critical appraisal. A reference librarian did two PubMed searches using the following: ED visits, patients >64 years old, falls, high risk, and effectiveness of intervention. Emergency Medical Abstracts, Science Citation Index, and the Cochrane Collaboration database were searched. Two team members reviewed the abstracts and selected pertinent articles. References were screened for additional pertinent articles. RESULTS: Twenty-six articles were reviewed. None were ED-based primary or secondary falls prevention in older patients. One randomized controlled trial of an intervention to decrease subsequent falls in elder community-dwelling patients who presented with a fall showed a structured interdisciplinary approach significantly reducing the number of falls. Two ED-based studies showed it was possible to identify ED patients at risk for falls. CONCLUSIONS: Based on one randomized controlled trial demonstrating a significant reduction in the risk of further falls, the burden of suffering caused by falls, and other studies demonstrating the value of interventions to reduce the risk of falling, the authors recommend that EDs conduct research to evaluate the effectiveness of clinical interventions to identify, counsel, and refer ED patients >64 years old who are at high risk for an unintentional fall.     

Do Children with Sickle Cell Disease Receive Disparate Care for Pain in the Emergency Department?

Background: There may be disparities in pain management practice in the emergency department (ED) for sickle cell disease patients (SCD) with vaso-occlusive episodes (VOE). Objectives: To compare pain management practice for children who presented to the ED with VOE to those with isolated long bone fractures (LBF). Methods: Children who presented with a VOE or a LBF to a children's hospital ED during 2005 were included. A retrospective medical chart review was conducted for each patient visit. Data collected included demographics, pain scores, time from triage to analgesia, and analgesic intervention. Results: Seventy-seven patients with SCD had 152 visits to the ED for pain, and 219 patients had 221 visits for LBF. Fifty-five patients (108 visits) with SCD and 123 patients (124 visits) with LBF received opiates. Subsequent analysis was done on these groups. Patients with SCD were older, less likely to be male and more likely to be African-American than the LBF group. Patients with SCD had higher triage pain scores (7.7 ± 2.5 vs. 6.7 ± 3.0, p = 0.005) and spent less time in the waiting room (7.4 ± 9.0 vs. 12.1 ± 26.8 min, p = 0.10), were given higher initial opiate doses (0.09 ± 0.03 vs. 0.07 ± 0.03 mg/kg morphine, p < 0.001); however, time from triage to analgesic intervention did not differ (69.0 ± 42.6 vs. 70.4 ± 57.1 min, p = 0.92). Conclusions: No disparities in care for children with sickle cell pain were identified. More timely administration of opiates needs to be encouraged, assuming other factors such as time of day, ED census, and acuity permit.     

Evaluation of an Emergency Medical Services–Based Social Services Referral Program for Elderly Patients

Objective. To describe the preliminary experience of an emergency medical services (EMS)-based follow-up program providing elderly patients access to community-based social services. Methods: This was a retrospective, case series report. Inclusion criteria were adults aged 60 years and older requesting EMS for fall or lift assist; against medical advice (AMA) refusal of transport for a medical complaint; any social service or home care needs; request for nonmedical transportation; multiple prior EMS visits; or cases of elder abuse or neglect. Patients were identified either by paramedics at the time of the call or an EMS physician during routine chart review of “no-transport” calls. Patients were then contacted and offered referral follow-up with a social services worker. Data were collected for age, gender, presence of established social services, referral strategy, complaint type, referral acceptance rate, and follow-up plan. Results: Seventy patients were referred over eight months. Paramedics provided 33% of referrals (23/70) as well as a significantly higher number of social service–related complaints (48% vs. 15%, p = 0.005). Follow-up from a fall occurred more often after EMS physician chart review (53% vs. 30%, p = 0.07). Rates of established social services were similar for patients who accepted and those who declined follow-up (89% vs. 90%, p = 0.95) and between patients who were referred by paramedics and those who were referred by EMS physicians (93% vs. 90%, p = 0.72). Paramedic referral was associated with a significantly higher rate of acceptance (94% vs. 28%, p < 0.001). Conclusion: EMS provides an invaluable opportunity to connect the elderly with social services at the time of contact. In this study, paramedics appeared to refer more social service–related complaints compared with other categories such as fall assistance. This highlights a difference in perception of social service needs among paramedics and represents an area for further training and education.     

Do Emergency Physicians Improve the Appropriateness of Emergency Transfer in Rural Areas?

Background

Until recently, there have been few studies on the transfer of patients from emergency departments (EDs) overall, as such studies were limited primarily to trauma patients.

Does Implementation of Biomathematical Models Mitigate Fatigue and Fatigue-related Risks in Emergency Medical Services Operations? A Systematic Review

Abstract

Background: Work schedules like those of Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel have been associated with increased risk of fatigue-related impairment. Biomathematical modeling is a means of objectively estimating the potential impacts of fatigue on performance, which may be used in the mitigation of fatigue-related safety risks. In the context of EMS operations, our objective was to assess the evidence in the literature regarding the effectiveness of using biomathematical models to help mitigate fatigue and fatigue-related risks. Methods: A systematic review of the evidence evaluating the use of biomathematical models to manage fatigue in EMS personnel or similar shift workers was performed. Procedures proposed by the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology were used to summarize and rate the certainty in the evidence. Potential bias attached to retained studies was documented using the Cochrane Collaboration's Risk of Bias tool for experimental studies. Results: The literature search strategy, which focused on both EMS personnel and non-EMS shift workers, yielded n = 2,777 unique records. One paper, which investigated non-EMS shift workers, met inclusion criteria. As part of a larger effort, managers and dispatchers of a trucking operation were provided with monthly biomathematical model analyses of predicted fatigue in the driver workforce, and educated on how they could reduce predicted fatigue by means of schedule adjustments. The intervention showed a significant reduction in the number and cost of vehicular accidents during the period in which biomathematical modeling was used. The overall GRADE assessment of evidence quality was very low due to risk of bias, indirectness, imprecision, and publication bias. Conclusions: This systematic review identified no studies that investigated the impact of biomathematical models in EMS operations. Findings from one study of non-EMS shift workers were favorable toward use of biomathematical models as a fatigue mitigation scheduling aid, albeit with very low quality of evidence pertaining to EMS operations. We propose three focus areas of research priorities that, if addressed, could help better elucidate the utility and impact of biomathematical models as a fatigue-mitigation tool in the EMS environment.     

Accuracy of Prehospital Intravenous Fluid Volume Measurement by Emergency Medical Services

Prehospital treatment protocols call for intravenous (IV) fluid for patients with shock, yet the measurement accuracy of administered fluid volume is unknown. The purpose of the current study was to assess the accuracy of documented and self-reported fluid volumes administered to medical patients by paramedics during prehospital care. We conducted a pilot, observational study nested within a parent cohort study of prehospital biomarkers in a single EMS agency transporting patients to a tertiary care hospital in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania over 8 months. Among eligible nontrauma, noncardiac arrest patients, we studied the self-reported IV fluid volume on ED arrival by paramedics, documented fluid volume in the EMS record, and compared those to the mass-derived fluid volume. We quantified the absolute error between methods, and determined EMS transport times or initial prehospital systolic blood pressure had any effect on error. We enrolled 50 patients who received prehospital IV fluid and had mass-derived fluid volume measured at ED arrival. Of these, 21 (42%) patients had IV fluid volume subsequently documented in EMS records. The median mass-derived fluid volume was 393 mL [IQR: 264–618 mL]. Mass-derived volume was similar for subjects who did (386 mL, IQR: 271–642 mL) or did not (399 mL, IQR: 253–602) have documented fluid administration (p > 0.05). The median self-reported fluid volume was 250 mL [IQR: 150–500 mL] and did not differ by documentation (p > 0.05). The median absolute error comparing self-reported to mass-derived fluid volume was 109 mL [IQR: 41–205 mL], and less than 250 mL in more than 80% of subjects. The median absolute error comparing documented fluid to mass-derived fluid volume was 142 mL [IQR: 64–265 mL], and was less than 250 mL in 71% of subjects. No difference in absolute error for either self-reported or document fluid volumes were modified by transport time or prehospital systolic blood pressure. Prehospital IV fluid administration is variably documented by EMS, and when recorded is typically within 250 mL of mass-derived fluid volume.     

Can Emergency Medical Services Use Turnaround Time as a Proxy for Measuring Ambulance Offload Time?

Background

“Offload delay” occurs when the transfer of care from paramedics to the emergency department (ED) is prolonged. Accurately measuring the delivery interval or “offload” is important, because it represents the time patients are waiting for definitive care. Because recording this interval presents a significant challenge, most emergency medical services systems only measure the complete at-hospital time or “turnaround interval,” and most offload delay research and policy is based on this proxy.

Objective

This study sought to test the validity of using the turnaround interval as a surrogate for the delivery interval.

Methods

This observational study examined levels of correspondence, or correlation, between delivery interval and turnaround interval, to assess whether turnaround is a reasonable surrogate for delivery. Delivery and turnaround intervals were logged by Richmond Ambulance Authority (RAA) in Richmond, Virginia, United States from April 1 to December 31, 2008. A total of 1732 ambulance runs from RAA were included.

Results

Pearson's correlation analysis showed a good correlation between turnaround and actual offload time (delivery), with a coefficient (r) of 0.753. A post hoc analysis explored patterns in the relationship, which is quite complex.

Conclusion

The results show that the correlation between the delivery and turnaround intervals is good. However, there remains much to be learned about the at-hospital time intervals and how to use these data to make decisions that will improve resource utilization and patient care. Efforts to establish a method to accurately record the delivery interval and to understand the at-hospital portion of the ambulance response are necessary.     

A Patient with Kikuchi's Disease: What Should Pain Clinicians Do?

Kikuchi's disease (KD) is an idiopathic and self-limiting necrotizing lymphadenitis that predominantly occurs in young females. It is common in Asia, and the cervical lymph nodes are commonly involved. Generally, KD has symptoms and signs of lymph node tenderness, fever, and leukocytopenia, but there are no reports on treatment for the associated myofacial pain. We herein report a young female patient who visited a pain clinic and received a trigger point injection 2 weeks before the diagnosis of KD. When young female patients with myofascial pain visit a pain clinic, doctors should be concerned about the possibility of KD, which is rare but can cause severe complications.     

Does the Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act Affect Emergency Department Use?

Background

Emergency departments (EDs) face increasing patient volumes and economic pressures. These problems have been attributed to the Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act (EMTALA).

Study objective

To determine whether modifying EMTALA might reduce ED use.

Methods

We surveyed ED patients to assess their knowledge of hospitals’ obligations to treat all patients regardless of insurance and to determine whether knowledge is associated with ED use.

Results

Among 4136 study subjects, 72% reported awareness of the law. Sixty-one percent of subjects were moderate ED users (≥ 1 additional ED visit in 12 months). Moderate users more often knew the law (74% vs. 70%, p = 0.005). Multivariate regression showed that factors associated with moderate use were: awareness of EMTALA (odds ratio [OR] 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.24–1.67), adult patient (OR 1.94; 95% CI 1.69–2.22), and government insurance (OR 2.67; 95% CI 2.30–3.08) or uninsured (OR 1.72; 95% CI 1.42–2.08). Only 8% of subjects were high-frequency users (≥5 visits). High-frequency users were more often aware of EMTALA (78% vs. 72%, p = 0.02). Covariates associated with high frequency were EMTALA awareness (OR 1.69; 95% CI 1.28–2.24), adult patient (OR 2.59; 95% CI 2.00–3.36), and government insurance (OR 3.73; 95% CI 2.76–5.06) or uninsured (OR 3.77; 95% CI 2.65–5.35).

Conclusion

Many patients know that the law requires hospitals to provide care. This knowledge is associated with more frequent ED use. EMTALA changes might reduce ED use, but broader policy implications should be considered.