The ability of quantitative ultrasound to predict the mechanical properties of trabecular bone under different strain rates

The ability of quantitative ultrasound to predict the mechanical properties of trabecular bone under different strain rates was investigated. Ultrasound velocity (UV) and broadband attenuation (BUA) were measured for 60 specimens of human trabecular bone. Samples were divided into two equal groups and loaded in compression at the strain rates of 0.0004 and 0.08 s⁻¹. The ultimate strength, elastic modulus, and energy absorption capacity were determined for each specimen. Specimens tested at 0.08 s⁻¹ had a mean value of strength 63% higher than the specimens tested at 0.0004 s⁻¹. The elastic modulus and energy absorption capacity were 82% and 42% higher, respectively, for the higher strain rate. UV and BUA were significantly associated with most mechanical properties at both strain rates. All mechanical properties were also correlated strongly with a linear combination of UV and BUA for both the low and high loading rates. The use of ultrasound parameters may provide good clinical means for assessing the resistance of trabecular bone to both low and high energy trauma.     

Prediction of mechanical properties of trabecular bone using quantitative MRI

Techniques for quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been developed for non-invasive estimation of the mineral density and structure of trabecular bone. The R*(2) relaxation rate (i.e. 1/T*(2)) is sensitive to bone mineral density (BMD) via susceptibility differences between trabeculae and bone marrow, and by binarizing MRI images, structural variables, such as apparent bone volume fraction, can be assessed. In the present study, trabecular bone samples of human patellae were investigated in vitro at 1.5 T to determine the ability of MRI-derived variables (R*(2) and bone volume fraction) to predict the mechanical properties (Young's modulus, yield stress and ultimate strength). Further, the MRI variables were correlated with reference measurements of volumetric BMD and bone area fraction as determined with a clinical pQCT system. The MRI variables correlated significantly (p < 0.01) with the mechanical variables (r = 0.32-0.46), BMD (r = 0.56) and bone structure (r = 0.51). A combination of R*(2) and MRI-derived bone volume fraction further improved the prediction of yield stress and ultimate strength. Although pQCT showed a trend towards better prediction of the mechanical properties, current results demonstrate the feasibility of combined MR imaging of marrow susceptibility and bone volume fraction in predicting the mechanical strength of trabecular bone and bone mineral density.     

3D打印钛合金骨小梁多孔结构的拉伸性能

文题释义：3D打印：3D打印技术开创了增材制造的生产方式,即依照3D设计蓝图可将金属粉末等原材料逐层堆积而制成最终产品,擅长构建形状结构复杂的产品与个体化定制,制作特异性假体或植入物,供植入以达到重建等目的,在骨科领域得到了广泛应用。 钛合金骨小梁：是以钛合金粉末为原材料,采用金属3D打印技术通过金属微粒逐层熔融叠加生成的一种类人体骨小梁三维空间网孔结构,其力学性能和生物学性能和人体的松质骨骨小梁极为相似,作为人工植入假体的表面结构,具有非常出色的骨长入效果。 背景：3D打印钛合金多孔结构以其良好的机械性能和生物相容性已经在骨科植入假体设计与临床应用方面得到了快速发展,与涂层假体相比,钛合金骨小梁结构具有骨长入快和骨长入好的优点。为了保证骨科植入物的安全,目前多采用实验方式确定骨小梁结构的拉伸、剪切疲劳和弯曲疲劳强度。 目的：通过力学实验和有限元数值模拟方法研究骨小梁多孔结构的力学性能。 方法：①3D打印钛合金骨小梁拉伸试件实验：设计并制备3D打印钛合金骨小梁拉伸试件,骨小梁结构的丝径为0.28-0.35 mm、孔径为0.71 mm、孔隙率为73%。检测钛合金骨小梁结构的拉伸强度,分析其失效机制,同时分析不同打印位置对骨小梁拉伸强度的影响。②数值模拟实验：利用有限元方法建立包括骨小梁理论结构的拉伸试件实体模型,模拟骨小梁试件的拉伸破坏过程。 结果与结论：①3D打印钛合金骨小梁拉伸试件的极限载荷分布在39.55-47.11 kN之间,等效极限拉伸应力分布在62.79-74.53 MPa之间,拉伸破坏的结果为网状结构断裂,说明钛合金骨小梁具有较高的拉伸强度;②3D打印钛合金骨小梁拉伸试件实验与数值模拟实验均显示,骨小梁试件受到拉伸破坏时的破坏形式为丝径断裂,不会在骨小梁与钛合金实体的结合面发生断裂;③数值模拟实验中骨小梁试件的拉伸破坏载荷低于3D打印钛合金骨小梁拉伸试件,造成该差异的原因主要为：3D打印骨小梁试件的丝径(280-350 μm之间)大于骨小梁的理论丝径(142 μm),而孔径(孔隙率75%)小于骨小梁的理论孔径(孔隙率96%)。 ORCID: 0000-0001-7000-2093(张兰) 中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：生物材料;骨生物材料; 口腔生物材料; 纳米材料; 缓释材料; 材料相容性;组织工程     

骨质疏松性骨折愈合中骨改建的动态参数及骨密度变化

背景：当骨质疏松骨强度下降时,遭受轻微创伤或其他各种风险因素均易发生骨折。 目的：观察骨质疏松性骨折愈合过程中骨小梁组织学变化,骨密度及骨矿化沉积率的改变。 方法：SD大鼠随机分为骨质疏松组与对照组,骨质疏松组大鼠切除双侧卵巢,术后3个月,建立骨折模型。骨折后4,8,12,16 周,荧光显微镜下观察骨改建的动态参数,双能X线骨密度仪下测定骨痂组织的骨密度;骨折后1,2,4,6,8,12,16 周,应用自动图像系统测量骨组织形态。 结果与结论：骨质疏松组大鼠成熟小梁骨占骨痂面积比对照组小,且小梁骨厚度变薄、小梁骨间距较宽,骨质疏松组骨小梁表面荧光标记百分比及骨痂组织骨密度低于对照组;而骨矿化沉积率高于后者对照组。说明在骨质疏松性骨折愈合过程中,骨痂组织的组织学的异常改变导致骨折愈合质量的降低。     

Postcranial skeletal pneumaticity: a case study in the use of quantitative microCT to assess vertebral structure in birds

Limb elements in birds have been characterized as exhibiting a reduction in trabecular bone, thinner cortices and decreased bending strength when pneumatized, yet it is unclear if these characteristics generalize to the axial skeleton. Thin section techniques, the traditional gold standard for bone structure studies, have most commonly been applied to the study of avian bone. This destructive technique, however, makes it subsequently impossible to use the same samples in experimental testing systems that allow researchers to correlate structure with the mechanical properties of the bone. Micro-computed tomography (microCT), a non-destructive X-ray imaging technique, can be used to assess the effect of pneumatization on vertebral cortical and trabecular bone through virtual extraction and structural quantification of each tissue type. We conducted a preliminary investigation of the application of microCT methods to the study of cortical and trabecular bone structure in a small sample of pneumatic and apneumatic thoracic vertebrae. The sample consisted of two similar-sized anatids, Aix sponsa (n = 7) and Oxyura jamaicensis (n = 5). Volumes of interest were created that contoured (outlined) the boundaries of the ventral cortical bone shell, the trabecular compartment and the whole centrum (cortical bone + trabecular bone), and allowed independent structural analysis of each volume of interest. Results indicated that bone volume fraction of the whole centrum was significantly higher in the apneumatic O. jamaicensis than in the pneumatized A. sponsa (A. sponsa = 36%, O. jamaicensis = 48%, P < 0.05). In contrast, trabecular bone volume fraction was similar between the two species. The ventral cortical bone shell was approximately 23% thinner (P < 0.05) in A. sponsa (0.133 mm) compared with apneumatic O. jamaicensis (0.172 mm). This case study demonstrates that microCT is a powerful non-destructive imaging technique that may be applied to the three-dimensional study of avian bone. The preliminary results suggest that pneumatic and apneumatic vertebrae of comparably sized avian species differ in relative bone volume, with the largest difference apparent at the level of the cortex, and not within trabecular bone. The presence of relatively thin cortices in pneumatic vertebrae is consistent with previous studies contrasting diaphyseal cortical bone between pneumatic and apneumatic long bones. Methodological issues related to this and any comparative microCT study of bone structure are discussed.     

Mechanical properties of human trabecular bone lamellae quantified by nanoindentation.

Improved preventive and therapeutic strategies for skeletal diseases such as osteoporosis rely on a better understanding of the mechanical properties of trabecular bone and their influence on cell mediated adaptation processes. The mechanical properties of trabecular bone are determined by composition as well as structural (trabecular architecture), microstructural (trabecular packets) and nanostructural (lamellae) organization. Density is the major predictor of the mechanical properties of trabecular structures and has been extended to the concept of fabric to include architectural anisotropy and improve even further the power of prediction. Recent advances in QCT and MRI technologies allow for precise assessment of 3D trabecular architecture and the mechanical consequences of structural changes can be increasingly well quantified by the means of computational methods. While single trabeculae have been tested using various techniques with contrasting results, little is known about the intrinsic mechanical properties of trabecular bone lamellae on which these computational methods rely. For instance, water and mineral content have a significant effect on the elastic, viscous, yield and postyield properties of bone tissue. In addition, collagen fiber orientation affects the mechanics of single remodeling units. Variations in composition and organization determined by age, accumulated damage or disease may therefore reduce the mechanical integrity of trabecular bone and deserve more attention. The aim of this work was to utilize a nanoindentation technique to quantify elastic modulus and hardness of human trabecular bone lamellae.     

The ovariectomized ewe model in the evaluation of biomaterials for prosthetic devices in spinal fixation.

The effect of surgical ovariectomy on cancellous bone was investigated by comparing mechanical properties and microarchitectural characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae in ovariectomized and sham-operated ewes. Eighteen mongrel ewes, 4+/-1 years old, were randomly divided into three groups: 6 animals served as a control group (Baseline), 6 were bilaterally ovariectomized (OVX), and the others were used as a sham-operated group (SHAM). OVX and SHAM ewes were euthanized 24 months after surgery; the L5 vertebrae were processed for mechanical and histomorphometric analyses. Maximum load, maximum strength (p<0.0005) and elastic modulus (p <0.005) decreased by about 28% in the OVX group in comparison with the other groups. In the OVX group, vertebral cancellous bone volume, trabecular thickness and trabecular number decreased by about 32% (p<0.0005), 15% (p=0.001) and 20% (p=0.019), respectively. An overall decrease in the bone turnover rate of the OVX group was registered in terms of bone formation rate (p=0.007) and activation frequency (p<0.0005). The variations observed in cancellous bone mechanics and histomorphometry would suggest the development of an osteopenic state in ewe vertebrae at 24 months. Such findings may be useful for future experimental investigations on biomaterials and prosthetic devices to be implanted in the osteopenic spine.     

Investigation of the mechanical interaction of the trabecular core with an external shell using rapid prototype and finite element models

The mechanical properties of vertebral bone have been widely studied with the ultimate goal of improving fracture risk prediction. However, the mechanical interaction between the cortical shell and the trabecular core is not well understood. The objective of this study was to investigate this interaction and to determine what effect it has on the ultimate strength of the whole bone. This objective was achieved by compression testing rapid prototype (RP) models of cylindrical trabecular bone cores, with and without an integral surrounding shell and incorporating increasing levels of artificially induced bone loss. Corresponding finite element (FE) models were generated and the load sharing of the shell and trabecular core was analysed under linear elastic loading conditions. The results of the physical RP model tests and corresponding FE analyses indicated that there was a reinforcing effect between the cortical shell and the trabecular core for all models tested and that the reinforcing effect became relatively more important to the ultimate strength of the whole bone as the bone volume fraction of the trabecular core decreased. It was found that two mechanisms contributed to the reinforcing effect: (i) load transfer from the highly stressed shell into the connecting outer trabeculae of the core for the shelled model. This did not occur for the un-shelled model where the load dropped off at the outer unsupported trabeculae; (ii) the stiffening effect on the shell due to the support provided by the connecting struts of the trabecular core, which serves to inhibit bending and buckling behaviour in the shell under compression loading. It was found that the stiffening on the shell was the more dominant contributor to the overall reinforcing effect between the shell and the trabecular core.     

Similar damage initiation but different failure behavior in trabecular and cortical bone tissue

The mechanical properties of bone tissue are reflected in its micro- and nanostructure as well as in its composition. Numerous studies have compared the elastic mechanical properties of cortical and trabecular bone tissue and concluded that cortical bone tissue is stiffer than trabecular bone tissue. This study compared the progression of microdamage leading to fracture and the related local strains during this process in trabecular and cortical bone tissue. Unmachined single bovine trabeculae and similarly-sized cortical bovine bone samples were mechanically tested in three-point bending and concomitantly imaged to assess local strains using a digital image correlation technique. The bone whitening effect was used to detect microdamage formation and propagation. This study found that cortical bone tissue exhibits significantly lower maximum strains (trabecular 36.6%±14% vs. cortical 22.9%±7.4%) and less accumulated damage (trabecular 16100±8800 pix/mm2 vs. cortical 8000±3400 pix/mm2) at failure. However, no difference was detected for the maximum local strain at whitening onset (trabecular 5.8%±2.6% vs. cortical 7.2%±3.1%). The differences in elastic modulus and mineral distribution in the two tissues were investigated, using nanoindentation and micro-Raman imaging, to explain the different mechanical properties found. While cortical bone was found to be overall stiffer and more highly mineralized, no apparent differences were noted in the distribution of modulus values or mineral density along the specimen diameter. Therefore, differences in the mechanical behavior of trabecular and cortical bone tissue are likely to be in large part due to microstructural (i.e. orientation and distribution of cement lines) and collagen related compositional differences.     

Spatial and temporal regulation of cancellous bone structure: characterization of a rate equation of trabecular surface remodeling

A computer simulation of trabecular surface remodeling was carried out to investigate the spatial and temporal regulation of the cancellous bone structure caused by bone cellular activities responding to a local mechanical environment. In the remodeling simulation, the rate of trabecular surface movement was directly related to stress at the trabecular level. Two model parameters, the threshold value of the lazy zone and the sensing distance of the mechanical environment, were introduced into the remodeling rate equation to express the sensitivity of bone cells to mechanical stimuli. A rectangular cancellous bone model under simple and nonuniform compressive loads was constructed using pixel finite elements. A simulation result revealed that the trabecular structure underwent a temporal and spatial change depending on the loading condition. It was found that the threshold value of the lazy zone regulates the rate of structural changes in time, and that sensing distance regulates the spatial distribution of the trabecular structure. The results demonstrate the possibility that the spatial and temporal regulation of the trabecular structure is determined by the sensitivities of bone cells to mechanical stimuli.     

Direct ink writing of highly porous and strong glass scaffolds for load-bearing bone defects repair and regeneration

The quest for synthetic materials to repair load-bearing bone lost because of trauma, cancer, or congenital bone defects requires the development of porous, high-performance scaffolds with exceptional mechanical strength. However, the low mechanical strength of porous bioactive ceramic and glass scaffolds, compared with that of human cortical bone, has limited their use for these applications. In the present work bioactive 6P53B glass scaffolds with superior mechanical strength were fabricated using a direct ink writing technique. The rheological properties of Pluronic® F-127 (referred to hereafter simply as F-127) hydrogel-based inks were optimized for the printing of features as fine as 30 μm and of three-dimensional scaffolds. The mechanical strength and in vitro degradation of the scaffolds were assessed in a simulated body fluid (SBF). The sintered glass scaffolds showed a compressive strength (136 ± 22 MPa) comparable with that of human cortical bone (100–150 MPa), while the porosity (60%) was in the range of that of trabecular bone (50–90%). The strength is ∼100-times that of polymer scaffolds and 4–5-times that of ceramic and glass scaffolds with comparable porosities. Despite the strength decrease resulting from weight loss during immersion in SBF, the value (77 MPa) is still far above that of trabecular bone after 3 weeks. The ability to create both porous and strong structures opens a new avenue for fabricating scaffolds for load-bearing bone defect repair and regeneration.     

Effects of in vitro bone formation on the mechanical properties of a trabeculated hydroxyapatite bone substitute

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that the mechanical properties of a trabecular bone substitute can be enhanced through in vitro tissue formation. Our specific objectives were to (1) determine the effects of in vitro marrow stromal cell-mediated tissue deposition upon a trabeculated hydroxyapatite scaffold on the strength and toughness of the resulting bone substitute; and (2) identify and characterize regions of newly deposited matrix and mineral. This work provides a basis for future investigations aimed at transforming a brittle hydroxyapatite scaffold into an osteoinductive, biomechanically functional implant through in vitro bone deposition. As hypothesized, the mechanical properties of the trabecular bone substitutes were significantly enhanced by in vitro tissue formation. As a result of cell seeding and a 5 week culture protocol, mean strength increased by 85% (p = 0.008) and energy to fracture increased by 130% (p = 0.003). Accompanying the enhancement of mechanical properties was the deposition of significant amounts of bone matrix and mineral. Fluorescence imaging, scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and nanoindentation confirmed the presence of bonelike mineral with Ca/P ratio, modulus, and hardness similar to that within human and rat trabecular bone tissue. This new mineralization was found to exist within a newly deposited parallel-fibered matrix both encasing and bridging between scaffold trabeculae. Taken as a whole, our results establish the feasibility of the production of an osteoinductive hydroxyapatite-based trabecular bone substitute with mechanical properties enhanced through in vitro bone deposition.     

Nanostructure and mineral composition of trabecular bone in the lateral femoral neck: implications for bone fragility in elderly women

Despite interest in investigating age-related hip fractures, the determinants of decreased bone strength in advanced age are not clear enough. Hitherto it has been obscure how the aging process affects the femoral neck nanostructure and composition, particularly in the lateral subregion of the femoral neck, which is considered as a fracture-initiating site. The femoral bone samples used in this study were obtained at autopsy in 10 women without skeletal disease (five younger: aged 20-40 years, and five elderly: aged 73-94 years). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was applied to explore the mineral grain size in situ in young vs. old trabecular bone samples from the lateral femoral neck. The chemical compositions of the samples were determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy and direct current argon arc plasma optical emission spectrometry. Our AFM study revealed differences in trabecular bone nanostructure between young and elderly women. The mineral grain size in the trabeculae of the old women was larger than that in the young (median: 95 vs. 59nm), with a particular bimodal distribution: 45% were small grains (similar to the young) and the rest were larger. Since chemical analyses showed that levels of calcium and phosphorus were unchanged with age, our study suggests that during aging the existing bone mineral is reorganized and forms larger aggregates. Given the mechanical disadvantage of large-grained structures (decreased material strength), the observed nanostructural differences contribute to our understanding of the increased fragility of the lateral femoral neck in aged females. Moreover, increasing data on mineral grains in natural bone is essential for advancing calcium-phosphate ceramics for bone tissue replacement.     

Mechanical strength of trabecular bone at the knee

Interest in the biomechanical properties of trabecular bone has expanded in response to the problems related to total and partial joint replacement with the knee joint constituting a main focus of attention. This relatively recent development has left a number of fundamental problems unanswered, especially related to the machining, storage and testing of trabecular bone specimens. Nevertheless, these studies have contributed to the understanding of the mechanical function of trabecular bone. Regarding the role of trabecular bone at the knee joint, the following conclusions may be emphasized (conclusions drawn from the author's previous studies (I-X) are shown in italics): (1) Trabecular bone is almost exclusively responsible for the transmission of load at the proximal tibial epiphysis from the knee joint to the metaphysis. The peripheral shell surrounding the epiphysis is not composed of cortical bone and plays a negligible role in load transmission. (2) The compressive strength and stiffness of trabecular bone is primarily dependent upon the apparent density, trabecular architecture and the strength of the bone material. Direct and indirect sources suggest that the true material strength of trabecular bone is less than that of cortical bone. The epiphyseal trabecular architecture, featuring a marked polarity with alignment of primary trabeculae at right angles to the joint surface, is responsible for functional anisotropy which points to the axial compressive properties as the more important mechanical parameters. (3) Tensile and shear properties are of special relevance to mechanical loosening of implants. These properties may be derived from the apparent density, and a close empirical relation to the axial compressive strength and stiffness is suggested. (4) The foam-like structure of trabecular bone is the basis for the large energy absorptive capacity. (5) The pattern of axial compressive stiffness and strength at the normal proximal tibia differs little among individuals. Supporting the medial tibial plateau is a large high strength area with maximal strength centrally and slightly anteriorly, while laterally there is a restricted area of relatively high strength posteriorly with a lower maximal value than medially. Bone strength is significantly reduced within ten millimeters of the subchondral bone plate, and this reduction continues distally at the lateral condyle. At both condyles strength is reduced towards the periphery with very low values being obtained at the margins of the condyles and at the intercondylar region. Absolute bone strength values are influenced by the level of physical activity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Characterization of bone quality using computer-extracted radiographic features.

Both bone mineral density (BMD) and trabecular structure are important determinates of bone mechanical properties. However, neither BMD or trabecular structural features can completely explain the variations in bone mechanical properties. In this study, we combine BMD and bone structural features to characterize bone mechanical behavior. Radiographs were obtained from 34 femoral neck specimens excised during total hip arthroplasties. Each neck radiograph was digitized and a region of interest (ROI) was selected from the medial side of the femoral neck. Textural features, the global Minkoswski dimension and trabecular orientation, were extracted from each ROI image using Minkowski dimension analysis. The BMD of each specimen was measured using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and subsequently normalized by bone size as measured from a standard pelvis radiograph. Mechanical testing was performed on the trabecular bone cubes machined from each femoral neck to yield bone mechanical properties. Multiple regression was performed to select the best features to predict bone mechanical properties. The results suggest that, using multiple predictors including normalized BMD structural features, and patient age, the coefficients of determination (R2) improved over the use of BMD alone. For bone strength, the R2 was improved from 0.24 using conventional BMD to 0.48 using a four-predictor model. Similar results were obtained in the prediction of Young's modulus, i.e., the R2 was improved from 0.25 to 0.55 in going from the model using conventional BMD to a four-predictor model. This study demonstrates the contributions of normalized BMD, structural features, and age to bone mechanical properties, and suggests a potential method for the noninvasive evaluation of bone mechanical properties.     

Electrical and dielectric properties of bovine trabecular bone--relationships with mechanical properties and mineral density

Interrelationships of trabecular bone electrical and dielectric properties with mechanical characteristics and density are poorly known. While electrical stimulation is used for healing fractures, better understanding of these relations has clinical importance. Furthermore, earlier studies have suggested that bone electrical and dielectric properties depend on the bone density and could, therefore, be used to predict bone strength. To clarify these issues, volumetric bone mineral density (BMDvol), electrical and dielectric as well as mechanical properties were determined from 40 cylindrical plugs of bovine trabecular bone. Phase angle, relative permittivity, loss factor and conductivity of wet bovine trabecular bone were correlated with Young's modulus, yield stress, ultimate strength, resilience and BMDvol. The reproducibility of in vitro electrical and dielectric measurements was excellent (standardized coefficient of variation less than 1%, for all parameters), especially at frequencies higher than 1 kHz. Correlations of electrical and dielectric parameters with the bone mechanical properties or density were frequency-dependent. The relative permittivity showed the strongest linear correlations with mechanical parameters (r > 0.547, p < 0.01, n = 40, at 50 kHz) and with BMDvol (r = 0.866, p < 0.01, n = 40, at 50 kHz). In general, linear correlations between relative permittivity and mechanical properties or BMDvol were highest at frequencies over 6 kHz. In addition, a significant site-dependent variation of electrical and dielectric characteristics, mechanical properties and BMDvol was revealed in bovine femur (p < 0.05, Kruskall-Wallis H-test). Based on the present results, we conclude that the measurement of electrical and dielectric properties provides quantitative information that is related to bone quantity and quality.     

Ex Vivo bone formation in bovine trabecular bone cultured in a dynamic 3D bioreactor is enhanced by compressive mechanical strain

Our aim was to test cell and trabecular responses to mechanical loading in vitro in a tissue bone explant culture model. We used a new three-dimensional culture model, the ZetOS system, which provides the ability to exert cyclic compression on cancellous bone cylinders (bovine sternum) cultured in forced flow circumfusion chambers, and allows to assess mechanical parameters of the cultivated samples. We evaluated bone cellular parameters through osteocyte viability test, gene and protein expression, and histomorphometric bone formation rate, in nonloaded versus loaded samples. The microarchitecture of bone cores was appraised by in vivo micro-CT imaging. After 3 weeks, the samples receiving daily cyclic compression exhibited increased osteoblast differentiation and activity associated with thicker, more plate-like-shaped trabeculae and higher Young's modulus and ultimate force as compared to unloaded samples. Osteoclast activity was not affected by mechanical strain, although it was responsive to drug treatments (retinoic acid and bisphosphonate) during the first 2 weeks of culture. Thus, in the ZetOS apparatus, we reproduce in vitro the osteogenic effects of mechanical strain known in vivo, making this system a unique and an essential laboratory aid for ex vivo testing of lamellar bone remodeling.     

Framework for optimal design of porous scaffold microstructure by computational simulation of bone regeneration

In bone tissue engineering using a biodegradable scaffold, geometry of the porous scaffold microstructure is a key factor for controlling mechanical function of the bone-scaffold system in the regeneration process as well as after the regeneration. In this study, we propose a framework for the optimal design of the porous scaffold microstructure by three-dimensional computational simulation of bone tissue regeneration that consists of scaffold degradation and new bone formation. The rate of scaffold degradation due to hydrolysis, that leads to decrease in mechanical properties, was simply assumed to relate to the water content diffused from the surface to the bulk material. For the new bone formation on both bone and scaffold surfaces, the rate equation of trabecular surface remodeling driven by mechanical stimulation was applied. Solving these two phenomena in the same time frame, the bone regeneration process in the bone-scaffold system was predicted by computational simulation using a voxel finite element method. The change in the mechanical function of the bone-scaffold system during the regeneration process was quantitatively evaluated by measuring the change in total strain energy, and this was used for the evaluation function to optimize the scaffold microstructure that provides the desired mechanical function during and after the bone regeneration process. A case study conducted for the scaffold with a simple microstructure demonstrated that the proposed simulation method could be applied to the design of a porous scaffold microstructure. In addition, the regeneration process was found to be very complex even though the simple rate equations for scaffold regeneration and new bone formation were used because of the coupling effects of these phenomena.     

Time Dependent Behaviour of Trabecular Bone at Multiple Load Levels

The deformation of bone when subjected to loads is not instantaneous but varies with time. To investigate this time-dependent behaviour sixteen bovine trabecular bone specimens were subjected to compressive loading, creep, unloading and recovery at multiple load levels corresponding to apparent strains of 2000–25,000 με. We found that: the time-dependent response of trabecular bone comprises of both recoverable and irrecoverable strains; the strain response is nonlinearly related to applied load levels; and the response is linked to bone volume fraction. Although majority of strain is recovered after the load-creep-unload-recovery cycle some residual strain always exists. The analysis of results indicates that trabecular bone becomes stiffer initially and then experiences stiffness degradation with the increasing load levels. Steady state creep rate was found to be dependent on applied stress level and bone volume fraction with a power law relationship.     

Inhomogeneity of tissue-level strain distributions in individual trabeculae: mathematical model studies of normal and osteoporosis cases

Little is known about the distributions of mechanical strains and stresses in individual trabeculae of cancellous bone, despite evidence that tissue-level strains affect the metabolism of bone. Recently, micro-finite element (micro-FE) studies have provided the first insights into the mechanical conditions in trabeculae, and suggested that osteoporotic cancellous bone experience higher and substantially less-uniform strains with respect to healthy cancellous bone. We may therefore ask whether the inhomogeneity of bone tissue strains is predominantly a consequence of micro-architectural differences between trabeculae, or is it mostly caused by the curvatures of each individual trabecula. Accordingly, the objectives of the present study were to determine the contribution of the shape of a trabecula to the intra-trabecula strain inhomogeneity, and to determine potential differences in intra-trabecula strain inhomogeneities between normal and thinner, osteoporotic-like trabeculae. We employed our previously reported generic single-trabecula model, which is a mathematical representation of the shape of a trabecula based on statistical analyses of mammalian trabecular dimensions. The single-trabecula model was loaded axially and in bending, and strain distributions were calculated for individual trabeculae as well as for "populations" of trabeculae, formed by assigning different trabecular thickness values in the trabecular model, in order to represent the distributions of trabecular shapes in normal and osteoporotic bones. We found that when subjected to equivalent loads, thinner, osteoporotic-like individual trabeculae and populations of thin trabeculae developed substantially greater strain inhomogeneities compared with normal trabeculae. We conclude that the intra-trabecula strain inhomogeneities are likely to be an important factor contributing to the overall increased strain inhomogeneity in osteoporotic cancellous bone, as previously observed in micro-FE studies.