Cross-cultural comparison of medicinal floras used against snakebites

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Envenomation causes an estimated 1.8-2.5 million incidences per year with a mortality level of 100-125,000 persons annually and more than 100,000 individuals suffer from severe complications, which may end in amputation of the attacked limb. The use of plants is a major part of the traditional practitioners’ treatment of snakebites.

Materials and methods

A database was created for plants used to treat snakebites worldwide. From this database, we selected five countries with a high number of entries and representing different cultures, geography and floristic zones: Brazil, Nicaragua, Nepal, China and South Africa. The datasets were analysed by regression and binominal analysis to see if any family or genus used against snakebites was overrepresented in the respective traditional medicinal systems relative to the abundance in the local flora. The families from the different geographical areas were compared to ascertain whether the same plant families are preferred by different peoples.

Results

Three ‘hot’ families (Apocynaceae, Lamiaceae and Rubiaceae) were recovered in at least two of the five compared countries in the regression analyses and one ‘hot’ family (Zingiberaceae) was recovered in two of the compared countries in the binomial analyses. Four out of five floras possess families identified as outliers in both regression and binomial analyses. Eight families were recovered by both the binomial and the regression analysis (40-62% of all highlighted families respectively). At the genus level, only Piper (Piperaceae) was recovered as a ‘hot’ genus in at least two floras. Seven genera were highlighted by both analyses (25-44% of the highlighted genera).

Conclusions

Cross-cultural comparison of medicinal floras used against snakebites appears to be useful for highlighting candidate families and genera for further studies.     

Regression analyses of southern African ethnomedicinal plants: informing the targeted selection of bioprospecting and pharmacological screening subjects

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Regression analyses of local medicinal floras are considered potentially useful when prioritising candidate plant taxa for pharmacological/bioprospecting investigations.

Aim of the study

To identify plant orders and subsequently families within the highly diverse ethnomedicinal flora of southern Africa, towards which biases by traditional healers are demonstrable. Taxa so identified can subsequently be weighted appropriately in semi-quantitative selection systems.

Methodology

Plant data sourced from the SANBI MedList database, the most comprehensive inventory of ethnomedicinal plants for the Flora of southern Africa region were grouped by order. A least squares regression analysis was applied to test the null hypothesis that the use of these plants by traditional healers is strictly random. Of ‘hot’ orders subsequently identified, characteristics of taxa therein were assessed to better determine the roles played by (i) growth forms, and (ii) inherent chemical diversity, in plant selections by ethnomedicinal practitioners.

Results

Analyses identified seven principally ‘hot’ plant orders (Malpigiales, Fabales, Gentianales, Asteraceae, Solanales, Malvales and Sapindales) and ‘hot’ families therein from a total of 55 regional ethnomedicinal orders. Five ‘cold’ ethnomedicinal orders (Rosales, Proteales, Poales, Asparagales and Caryophyllales) were shown to be significantly less represented in the medicinal flora than predicted. No clear growth form preferences were identified across orders. The presence of highly diverse bioactives was evident in the ‘hottest’ plant families from ‘hot’ plant orders.

Conclusions

These 12 outliers identified by the regression analyses allowed for the falsification of the null hypothesis. Indications are that ‘hot’ taxa are selected traditionally on the basis of bioactivity, which is reflected in chemical diversity.     

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commonly used by Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India

Ethnopharmacological relevance

For thousands of years, medicinal plants have played an important role throughout the world in treating and preventing a variety of diseases. Kani tribal people in Tirunelveli hills still depend on medicinal plants and most of them have a general knowledge of medicinal plants which are used for first aid remedies, to treat cough, cold, fever, headache, poisonous bites and some simple ailments.

Aim of the study

The present study was initiated with an aim to identify traditional healers who are practicing herbal medicine among the Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India and quantitatively document their indigenous knowledge on the utilization of medicinal plants particularly most common ethnomedicinal plants.

Methods

Field study was carried out over a period of 4 years in Tirunelveli hills. The ethnomedicinal information was collected through interviews among the Kani traditional healers. The collected data were analyzed through use value (UV), informant consensus factor (F_ic), fidelity level (FL) and relative importance (RI).

Results

A total of 90 species of plants distributed in 83 genera belonging to 52 families were identified as commonly used ethnomedicinal plants by the Kani traditional healers in Tirunelveli hills for the treatment of 65 types of ailments. These ailments were categorized into 15 ailment categories based on the body systems treated. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts and most of the medicines were prepared in the form of paste and administered orally. F_ic values of the present study indicated that there was a high agreement in the use of plants in the treatment of jaundice and diabetes among the users. Dermatological infections/diseases and gastro-intestinal disorders had highest use-reports and 29 species of plants had the highest fidelity level of 100%. The most important species according to their use value were Gymneme sylvestre (2.00), Melia azedarach, Murraya koenigii, Syzygium cumini and Terminalia chebula (1.83).

Conclusion

As a result of the present study we can recommend the plants Alpinia galanga, Azadirachta indica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Gymnema sylvestre, Leucas aspera, M. azedarach, Mollugo nudicaulis, Ocimum tenuiflorum, S. cumini, T. chebula and Tribulus terrestris (with high UV and RI values), Bambusa arundinacea, Datura metel, Evolvulus nummularius, Opuntia dillenii and Physalis minima (newly reported claims with highest FL) for further ethnopharmacological studies for the discovery of potential new drugs.     

An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Edremit Gulf (Balıkesir-Turkey)

Ethnopharmacological relevance

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on medical plants in the Western Region of Turkey. There is urgency in recording such data. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are done by FIC method in western part of Turkey.

Aim of study

This study aimed to identify plants collected for medical purposes by the local people of Edremit Gulf, located in the Western Region of Turkey, and to document the uses and local names of these plants.

Materials and methods

This study, conducted between 2007 and 2010, gathered information on the medicinal plant species traditionally used in Edremit Bay, Turkey and the local names of these plants. In the scope of the study, medicinals plant species and related information were collected; herbarium materials were prepared; and the specimens were entitled. Field research was conducted by collecting ethnobotanical information during structured and semi-structured interviews with native knowledgeable people in territory. In addition, the relative importance value of species was determined and informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study.

Results

A total of 118 medical plants belonging to 50 families were identified in the region. Among them, 99 species are wild and 19 species are cultivated plant. The most common medicinal plant families were Lamiaceae (>18%), Asteraceae (>11%), Rosaceae (>7%); the most common preparations were infusion and decoction. It was found that Hypericum perforatum, Lavandula stoechas, Salviatomentosa, Origanum onites, Origanum vulgare, and Teucrium polium were the most commonly used species. A total of 218 medicinal uses (remedies) were recorded. The traditional medicinal plants have been mostly used for the treatment of abdominal and stomach pain (17%), cough and cold (12%), diabetes (6%), kidney ailments (5%), wounds (4%).

Conclusion

The use of traditional medicine was still widespread among the people interviewed during this study. Due to the increasing health service facilities in the area, herbal medicine, seemed to be more related to health care and disease prevention than cure.     

Anti-malarial herbal remedies of northeast India, Assam: an ethnobotanical survey

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Malaria is a serious public health problem in the north-eastern region of India including Assam, in view of development of chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum. There is need for alternative and affordable therapy.

Aim of the study

This study was conducted to document indigenous knowledge, usage customs and practices of medicinal plant species traditionally used by the residents of Sonitpur district of Tezpur, Assam to treat malaria and its associated symptoms.

Materials and methods

A total of 50 randomly selected sampling represented by male (38.76%) and female respondents (12.24%) were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire.

Results

The present ethno-botanical survey revealed 22 species of plants belonging to 17 botanical families were reported to be used exclusively in this region for the treatment of malaria. Verbenaceae (three species), Menispermaceae (two species), and Acanthaceae (two species) botanical families represented the species that are most commonly cited in this survey work and the detailed use of plants has been collected and described.

Conclusions

The most serious threat to the existing knowledge and practice on traditional medicinal plants included cultural change, particularly the influence of modernization and lack of interests shown by the next younger generations were the main problems reported by the informants during the field survey. Hence, the proper documentation of traditional medicinal plants being used as anti-malarial agents and related indigenous knowledge held by the tribal community is an important approach to control the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria reported in this survey work.     

Assessment of the antimicrobial effect of three plants used for therapy of community-acquired urinary tract infection in Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil)

Ethnopharmacological relevance

The urinary tract infections (UTI) are among the infectious diseases of bacterial origin most commonly diagnosed, and may result in a significant mortality. The microorganisms most frequently involved in community-acquired infections are Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, both Gram-negative bacillus of the Enterobacteriaceae family. In southern Brazil, it is common the treatment of UTI using herbs and teas, a tradition inherited from the ancient indigenous people. Nevertheless, there is still poor scientific information about the action of these plants.

Materials and methods

Tests included the determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) by microdilution method at concentrations of 5000-156.25 μg/μL, and evaluation of antimicrobial activity by agar disc diffusion method at concentrations 500-12.5 μg/μL, against the microorganisms Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Results

In the tests for MIC and antimicrobial activity by disc diffusion method in agar, the growth of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were not inhibited by extracts from Piptochaetium montevidense, Bulbostylis capillaris and Juncus capillaceus employed in the study.

Conclusions

Despite the popular use of the plants used in this study, there is no relation between the use and the expected antimicrobial activity. Prolonged use of these plants may worsen the disease and lead to kidney involvement, and in severe cases, lead to death.     

Pharmacological properties of Anagallis arvensis L. ("scarlet pimpernel") and Anagallis foemina Mill. ("blue pimpernel") traditionally used as wound healing remedies in Navarra (Spain)

Ethnopharmacological relevance

: Anagallis arvensis and Anagallis foemina are traditionally used in Navarra (Spain) for dermatological purposes regarding wound healing properties. In some cases they are also used to threat internal infections although they are known to be toxic at high doses.

Aim of study

: Due to lack of studies, we decided to evaluate the potential of the plants as wound healing remedies measuring antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties using in vitro procedures.

Materials and methods

Antimicrobial effects were studied against four bacteria and one fungus. Anti-inflammatory properties were measured in terms of COX-1 and -2 inhibition as well as superoxide radical scavenging capacity.

Results

Both species exerted antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. The methanolic extract obtained from Anagallis arvensis seemed to produce the highest inhibition in Candida albicans (MIC = 0.31 mg/ml). Inhibition of COX-1 and -2 was also stronger for methanolic extracts whereas aqueous were revealed as better free radical scavengers.

Conclusions

The study reveals that both species posses antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities related to their ethnomedicinal uses.     

Physiologisch-anatomische Aspekte in der Neuraltherapie: Behandlungsergebnisse akuter und chronischer Schmerzen

Background

Central functions of neural therapy (Huneke) are explained by electrophysiological processes. The following modifications of the original neural therapy concepts open up new possibilities in the treatment of acute, chronic and neuropathic pain.

Aim

To prove the efficacy of this new approach.

Methods

During the first 4 years of application of this therapy, all patients with the following pain syndromes were treated consecutively: cervical, brachial, intercostal, lumbo-schiatic. Pain improvement was measured by verbal analogue scales.

Results

133 patients were treated. Complete pain remission (> 90 %) was achieved in more than 50 % of all cases. Even in cases of chronic pain, the treatment lasted not longer than 7 weeks. Major side effects were not seen.

Conclusion

The modified neural therapy is a highly efficient tool for pain management with fast improvements, no major side effects, and it is easy to apply. Frequent indications make this therapy recommandable to general practitioners.     

Analysis of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants utilized in communities of Jirisan National Park (Korea)

Ethopharmaacological relevance

The purpose of this study is to analyze and record traditional knowledge of medicinal plants utilized in communities of Jirisan National Park.

Materials and methods

Data was collected through participant observations and in-depth interviews with semi-structured questionnaires. Quantitative comparative analyses were accomplished through informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), and social network analysis (SNA).

Results

The 1660 ethnomedicinal practices recorded from the communities were classified into 89 families, 215 genera, and 274 species. The representative families were Asteraceae (10.02%) followed by Fabaceae (8.7%), Araliaceae (7.2%), and Rosaceae (6.7%). On the whole, 34 kinds of plant-parts were used and prepared in 73 various ways by the people for medicinal purposes. The informant consensus factor (ICF) values in the ailment categories were physical pain (0.95), respiratory system disorders (0.91), veterinary ailments (0.90), nervous system disorders (0.89), and diabetes (0.88). In terms of fidelity levels, 48 plant species showed 100% of fidelities. The social network analysis (SNA) between ailments and the plant families within all communities of this study, most of plant families were located closer to the center of the network for the three ailments groups. Asteraceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Pinaceae and Rosaceae as depicted by the rectangular-shaped region, were positioned more closely within the center of the network figure and possess more versatility as a treatment for various ailments.

Conclusion

The utilization of the social network analysis is used as a new tool for various interpretations to ethnomedicinal knowledge within a local community. Through this study, we are confident that the useful value of the social network analysis has been proven and the three dimensional relationships of these components will extend beyond the existing understanding of ethnomedicinal knowledge within local communities around the world.     

Ethno-medicinal uses and screening of plants for antibacterial activity from Similipal Biosphere Reserve,Odisha, India

Ethnopharamcological relevance

The present study examined the variety and the extent of medicinal plants used in the health care system of tribal inhabitants of Similipal Biosphere Reserve. In addition to this, such plants were also screened for antibacterial properties against common pathogenic bacteria.

Material and methods

Semi-structured interview was carried out with 42 informants (mean age 42, 86% male, 14% female) at 24 locations in and around SBR, regarding the use of plants for the treatment of various human ailments. Antibacterial screening is adopted with the documented ethnomedicinal plants using methanol and aqueous extracts against eight bacterial strains.

Results

A total of 187 plant species belonging to 74 families were documented for frequent medicinal uses against common ailments such as stomach problems, fever, skin diseases, diarrhea and dysentery. Although all parts of plant are used, leaves and bark are most common. Tribals used the plant parts both in form of decoction (taken orally as in internal problems) and paste (external use). Out of 187 plant species, 120 plants recorded antibacterial activity against test bacterial strain.

Conclusions

This study revealed that self care using medicinal plants is a common practice by the tribes of SBR. About 64% of the used plants have scientifically proved medicinal values with respect to the antibacterial properties.     

Ibogaine and the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Ibogaine is a psychoactive monoterpine indole alkaloid extracted from the root bark of Tabernanthe iboga Baill. that is used globally in medical and nonmedical settings to treat drug and alcohol addiction, and is of interest as an ethnopharmacological prototype for experimental investigation and pharmaceutical development. The question of whether ibogaine inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is of pharmacological and toxicological significance.

Materials and methods

AChE activity was evaluated utilizing reaction with Ellman's reagent with physostigmine as a control.

Results

Ibogaine inhibited AChE with an IC₅₀ of 520 ± 40 μM.

Conclusions

Ibogaine's inhibition of AChE is physiologically negligible, and does not appear to account for observations of functional effects in animals and humans that might otherwise suggest the possible involvement of pathways linked to muscarinic acetylcholine transmission.     

Traditional Medicine Collection Tracking System (TM-CTS): a database for ethnobotanically driven drug-discovery programs

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Ethnobotanically driven drug-discovery programs include data related to many aspects of the preparation of botanical medicines, from initial plant collection to chemical extraction and fractionation. The Traditional Medicine Collection Tracking System (TM-CTS) was created to organize and store data of this type for an international collaborative project involving the systematic evaluation of commonly used Traditional Chinese Medicinal plants.

Materials and methods

The system was developed using domain-driven design techniques, and is implemented using Java, Hibernate, PostgreSQL, Business Intelligence and Reporting Tools (BIRT), and Apache Tomcat.

Results

The TM-CTS relational database schema contains over 70 data types, comprising over 500 data fields. The system incorporates a number of unique features that are useful in the context of ethnobotanical projects such as support for information about botanical collection, method of processing, quality tests for plants with existing pharmacopoeia standards, chemical extraction and fractionation, and historical uses of the plants. The database also accommodates data provided in multiple languages and integration with a database system built to support high throughput screening based drug discovery efforts. It is accessed via a web-based application that provides extensive, multi-format reporting capabilities.

Conclusions

This new database system was designed to support a project evaluating the bioactivity of Chinese medicinal plants. The software used to create the database is open source, freely available, and could potentially be applied to other ethnobotanically driven natural product collection and drug-discovery programs.     

Ethnobotanical study on some Malaysian anti-malarial plants: A community based survey

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Various plants species are used in the traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria. This is the first community based ethnobotanical study in Peninsular Malaysia.

Aim of the study

To investigate the plants traditionally used in the treatment of malaria in Malaysia.

Materials and methods

An ethnobotanical survey was carried out among 233 Aboriginal and rural households, and traditional healers in malaria endemic areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Data were collected using a pre-tested questionnaire.

Results

Nineteen species belonging to 17 families were identified. Twelve plant species have not previously been documented for the treatment of malaria in Malaysia.

Conclusions

Findings of this study can be used as an ethnopharmacological basis for selecting plants for further anti-malarial phytochemical and pharmaceutical studies.     

Normal and delayed wound healing is improved by sesamol, an active constituent of Sesamum indicum (L.) in albino rats

Ethno-pharmacological relevance

The seeds of Sesamum indicum Linn. (Pedaliaceae) has been used traditionally for the treatment of wounds in Buldhana district of Maharashtra state. Sesamol is the main anti-oxidative constituent contained mainly in the processed sesame seed oil which has not been explored scientifically for its wound healing activity.

Aim of the study

To investigate the influence of sesamol (SM) on wound repair, both in normal and dexamethasone (DM) delayed healing processes in albino rats.

Materials and methods

Incision, excision and dead space wounds were inflicted on albino rats (180-220 g) of either sex, under ketamine anaesthesia. Group I served as control, group II received SM 50 mg/kg i.p., group III was treated with dexamethasone (DM) i.m. (0.17 mg/kg) and SM + DM was given to group IV. The tensile strength, wound contraction, hydroxyproline, lysyl oxidase and total RNA and DNA levels (in granulation tissue) were measured.

Results

The tensile strength significantly (p < 0.05) increased with SM at 471.40 ± 14.66 g when compared to control at 300.60 ± 9.16 g in normal and DM suppressed healing. No significant change was observed in duration of wound contraction and lysyl oxidase when compared to control at 2.98 ± 0.10 mg. SM treated rats showed a significant (p < 0.05) rise in hydroxyproline levels at 6.45 ± 0.45 mg when compared to control at 1.75 ± 0.20 mg.

Conclusion

These results indicate that sesamol could be a promising drug in normal as well as delayed wound healing processes.     

Pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the Middle Navarra (Iberian Peninsula)

Ethnopharmacological relevance

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in the Middle Navarra (Iberian Peninsula). Collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in this area with 3622.2 km² and 404,634 inhabitants.

Materials and methods

We performed semi-structured interviews with 276 informants (mean age 72; 46% women, 54% men) in 111 locations, identified the plant reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories.

Results

The informants reported data on 198 medicinal plants belonging to 60 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 98% of the pharmaceutical uses (1401 use reports). The species with the highest number of cites are Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa, Jasonia glutinosa and Chamaemelum nobile with a long tradition of use in Navarra. All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. The most common mode of administration is oral, while the second most common is topical.

Conclusions

The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, wounds and dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 80 new or scarcely cited uses for 14 medicinal plants. For 36% of the species (5) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 64% (9) have only one to three references.     

Ethnomedicinal application of plants in the western plain region of North Jeolla Province in Korea

Ethnopharmacological relevance

This study aims to record and conserve oral traditional knowledge of medicinal plants from the indigenous people living in the western plain region of North Jeolla Province, Korea.

Materials and methods

Our research team interviewed 46 key informants (20 men and 26 women) who have lived over 50 years in the area. The average age of the informants was 74 (with a minimum age of 56 to maximum 84). Data was collected through the participatory rural appraisal method involving interviews, informal meetings, open and group discussions, and overt observation using semi-structured questionnaires.

Results

Ethnobotanical inventory possessed by the residents included 183 species of plants distributed in 156 genera belonging to 68 families and were used in 626 use-reports. Among them, the medicinal plants were comprised as 42 families, 75 genera, and 83 species in usage in 195 ways. A total of 71 ailments were treated with 222 kinds of remedies using medicinal plants. Parts of plant that were used as treatments total up to 17 and the methods of preparation for medicinal materials add up to 28. Informant consensus factor (ICF) showed that the muscular-skeletal disorders had the highest agreement measure (1.0) followed by cuts and wounds (0.87) and respiratory system disorders (0.77). Overall, 29 plant species showed fidelity level of 100%.

Conclusions

This study is noteworthy in that it records rapidly disappearing traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in a time period of pressing environmental changes with regard to the newly built sea wall, eventually leading more or less to the immigration of the seaside inhabitants and the familiarization of the modern medical systems to the farmland inhabitants.     

Analysis of ethnoveterinary treatments for cattle (Bos indicus) diseases referred in Sanrimgyeongje including twelve volumes of literature from the 7th to the 18th century

Aim of the study

This study aims at a comprehensive analysis of ethnoveterinary treatment in the cattle-raising section of Sanrimgyeongje which covers 12 different volumes of literature including 4 Korean and 8 Chinese literatures from the 7th to the 18th century, with a special attention to the treatments for cattle diseases.

Materials and methods

The above mentioned literature was analyzed through several steps: translation of the Chinese text into Korean, identification of diseases, verification of medicinal materials and confirmation of scientific names.

Results

As recorded in the thirteen references, this study shows that there are 143 medicinal materials which have been used as therapies for cattle diseases. Of these, 55 plant species belonging to 52 genera in 29 families had 100 modes of usages, while one species of fungus was used in one way. Likewise, 11 species of animals belonging to 11 genera in 10 families were utilized in 18 different methods. Lastly, 9 kinds of inorganic matters were used in 11 ways with another 4 kinds being useful in 14 different ways. Consequently, each of rinderpests, murrains, and hooves has been treated, respectively with 14, 10 and 3 types of medicinal decoctions made from 35, 18 and 15 kinds of medicinal materials.

Conclusion

This diversified usage of various medicinal materials is incomparable to the modern ethnoveterinary investigation which tends to focus strictly in plants. If additional studies were to be conducted on these treatments and all the medicinal materials used within them, various new treatments and medicines can be developed to supplement the pharmacopoeia of contemporary veterinary medicine.     

TRAMIL ethnopharmalogical survey in Les Saintes (Guadeloupe, French West Indies): a comparative study

Aim of the study

The aim of this study was a comparison of popular household remedies in primary health care in the communities of Terre-de-Haut and Terre-de-Bas, the inhabited islands of ‘Les Saintes’ archipelago (Guadeloupe, French West Indies).

Methods

Twelve ailments, with higher prevalence, were chosen in each island and a total of 216 families were interviewed using TRAMIL participative ethnopharmacological interviews.

Results

According to TRAMIL methodology (frequency over 20%), twenty-two plants uses were recorded for Terre-de-Haut and eighteen for Terre-de-Bas. The islands share only ten significant plants uses and four of them have notable different frequencies. The informant consensus factor in the use of many specific remedies was fairly high, that gave an additional validity to these popular medicines.

Conclusion

The data presented in this study show that popular knowledge on medicinal plants uses is still alive in the studied area. The difference between the two nearby islands is very narrow but on the other hand, there exist some differences possibly due to a probable declining of plant resources and a more important flux of migration and its provision of other practices of healthcare in Terre-de-Haut.     

An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by the people in Nhema communal area, Zimbabwe

Ethnopharmacological relevance

This study documented the pharmaceutical importance of plant resources in Nhema communal area, particularly the significance of medicinal plants in primary healthcare. This is reflected in the great diversity of plants used for medical purposes as well as in their wide range of medicinal applications. Such rich ethnobotanical knowledge and repository of medicinal plants reinforces the need for an evaluation of their biological activity as a basis for developing future medicines.

Materials and methods

In order to document information on medicinal plants used for primary health care and to maximize the collection of indigenous knowledge in Nhema communal area, nine traditional healers were identified using the Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) approach. Data was collected through open-ended interviews with traditional healers, between January and May 2008.

Results

A total of 61 plant species representing 45 genera and 28 families were found to be commonly used in the treatment of 34 different human health problems. More than a third of the plant species were used for diarrhoea, which is a prevalent disease in the study area. The root was the most commonly used plant part while decoction was the most common method of traditional drug preparation.

Conclusions

Nhema communal area in the Midlands province, Zimbabwe is endowed with a strong culture of herbal medicine usage for primary healthcare. This is reflected in the number of medicinal plants used and the human ailments they treat. This preservation of indigenous knowledge is due to continued reliance on wild plant resources for primary healthcare by the local community. Deforestation and unsustainable rates of plant use are a serious threat on continued utilization of plant resources for primary healthcare.