Changes in the smoking behaviour, knowledge and opinion of medical students, 1972–1981

To examine changes in medical students' smoking behaviour, knowledge and opinion over the last decade, a survey first conducted at the University of Manchester Medical School in 1972 was repeated in 1981.A postal questionnaire was sent to 1163 students, of whom 1112 (96%) replied. A substantial decline in cigarette smoking among medical students has occurred. This largely follows trends in the general population, medical education itself having made little contribution to the change. In 1972, 29% of students were cigarette smokers compared with 17% in 1981. The fall in cigarette smoking was more marked among men students rather than women, older rather than younger students, clinical rather than pre-clinical students. Cigarette consumption had also decreased as had the use of cigars and pipes among male students. The decline was already evident prior to students beginning their medical studies. A smaller expansion of smoking experience at medical school had occurred among the 1981 students, but, as in 1972, those who took up smoking or increased their consumption exceeded those who gave up or cut down. In 1981 the likelihood of taking up smoking or becoming a regular smoker at medical school was somewhat greater for women students than for men, although the numbers concerned were small. The survey reconfirmed the importance of the social environment in smoking behaviour.Modest changes had occurred in knowledge and opinion about smoking. Both the accuracy and scope of knowledge of students about the health hazards increased between 1972 and 1981, particularly among clinical students, who remained considerably better informed than their pre-clinical colleagues. As in 1972, knowledge had little impact on smoking behaviour. By 1981 nine out of ten students regarded smoking as a major risk to health, both clinical students and smokers being more likely to take this view than in 1972. Almost all students, irrespective of their smoking behaviour, found the evidence linking smoking to serious illness to some extent convincing, and by 1981 a somewhat greater proportion, 60%, found it very convincing, the tendency to do so increasing as they progressed through their course.     

Cigarette smoking: knowledge, attitudes and behaviour in an adult population in Italy

The study explores knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour regarding cigarette smoking and related factors in an adult population. A total of 935 parents of children attending the eighth class of ten randomly selected primary schools in Catanzaro (Italy) received a questionnaire consisting of questions on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, knowledge, behaviour and attitudes about cigarette smoking. Six hundred and sixty-nine parents returned the questionnaire, with a response rate of 71.5%. Knowledge of risk associated to smoking was significantly higher in more educated subjects and in past smokers compared to current. Current and past smokers were respectively 39.6% and 17.2%, and current smokers were younger, not married, less prone to consider smoking as a major risk for their health and more likely to live with other smokers compared to past and never smokers. Females of higher education were more likely to be current smokers, whereas male current smokers were more likely to be less educated compared to past or never smokers. The results strongly recommend the provision of accurate information about the health consequences related to smoking, with a more intensive involvement of health care providers, particularly targeted to women and younger age groups.     

Smoking among the staff of a medical school

A postal questionnaire sent to the staff of Manchester Medical School ( n =483, response 86%) examined their smoking behaviour and views about smoking in relation to their students, thus completing the picture provided by earlier studies of smoking among the students. Twelve per cent of the staff were regular cigarette smokers and 32% smokers of all forms of tobacco, age being the characteristic with most influence on smoking rates. Long-term health risks and expense were the main reasons for trying to give up cigarettes, whereas the need to set an example, in particular to students, was not stressed. A minority smoked when teaching, but fewer smoked when with students than with their colleagues, A quarter allowed students to smoke during teaching sessions; more than half thought students should be offered no persuasion about smoking; and four out of ten considered that staff smoking does not deter students from giving up. Degree of contact with students and qualifications had some influence on these views, but age was more important. Smokers were no more likely to permit smoking during teaching but were less likely to value persuasion or to think staff smoking deters students from giving up. The ambivalent picture of staff behaviour and views as seen by the students in the earlier studies, was confirmed by this examination of the staff themselves, whose importance as role models was highlighted in the discussion.     

Smoking: How medical students see thedoctor''s role

To examine their view of the doctor's role in relation to smoking and how it is influencedboth by their medical training and their own smoking behaviour, a postal questionnaire was sent to 1163 medical studients at Manchester University, of whom 1112 replied (96%). Only a small minority of students were themselves cigarette smokers (17%) but they were poorly informed about the smoking behaviour of their future profession. Nearly half were not aware that doctors are less likely to be smokers than the general public and only four in 10 were able to estimate accurately the proportion of cigarette smokers among teaching staff. Students were almost unanimously agreed that it was appropriate for a doctor to advise a pregnant woman, a chronic bronchitic or a patient with a history of myocardial infarction not to smoke, but only seven in 10 took this view about a healthy young man. Nevertheless, they increasingly saw the relevance of the preventive approach as they progressed through their education, although smokers were less likely to do so. The smoking behaviour of patients was seen to be an important concern for the doctor and this opinion, uninfluenced by their own smoking behaviour, grew stronger as students progressed through their course. However, they were more equivocal in their view of the implications of the professional role for private behaviour, particularly the smokers among them. Thus most students were aware of the potential influence of a doctor's smoking behaviour but just under two-thirds took the next step of accepting the professional responsibility to set a good example, and seven in 10 regarded it ultimately as a purely personal decision.     

A comparison of smoking behaviors among medical and other college students in China

A survey of students' smoking in China (n = 1896), comparing medical students with college students in non-medical majors, was carried out to determine whether a medical education has a preventive effect on smoking uptake. The survey, sampling students from 12 universities in three cities, found no significant differences between medical and non-medical students in smoking prevalence (40.7% versus 45.1% for males, 4.4% versus 6.0% for females), in 'ever smoked' groups, in 'ever smoked 100 cigarettes' groups or in years of smoking. For both student groups, smoking prevalence increased with age and with years of college. However, one significant difference was found among the smokers: medical students were more likely to be occasional smokers than were non-medical students (75.3% occasional smokers among medical students who smoked versus 60.6% among non-medical students). These results suggest that a medical education had little effect on these students' decisions to smoke, but that it may have modified their consumption level. Future studies are needed to ascertain factors affecting the decision to smoke and to identify possible early adopters of a non-smoking culture in China. Action on a societal level is urgently needed to change Chinese social norms regarding smoking.     

Smoking-related behaviour and attitudes among medical students in Alexandria

As a preliminary step toward incorporating a tobacco education and intervention program into our undergraduate medical curriculum, this study was designed to assess students' smoking-related behaviour, knowledge and attitudes towards tobacco, and perceptions of their future role as doctors in smoking intervention. A cross-sectional, study was conducted in the university year 2001/2002 on a representative sample of male medical students enrolled in 4th and 5th years at Alexandria University. A total of 320 students across the 2 years completed the survey. The smoking rate among medical students was 17.5% (10.9% smoked daily and 6.6% occasionally). The awareness of harmful effects of smoking and knowledge about the causal role of tobacco in the development of specific diseases were deficient. The intention to perform smoking intervention in the future as doctors seemed unsatisfactory. About 85% of the students thought that doctors should carry out smoking cessation advice depending on the disease, while the rate of those who thought so irrespective of the disease did not reach 44%. Current smokers thought less actively about smoking intervention than non-smokers. Nearly two-thirds of students (65.3%) felt they were not sufficiently prepared for caring or counseling smokers, and only 31.9% of students were convinced of the effectiveness of the doctor's advice to stop smoking. Seventy-seven and half percent of them desired specific training in smoking intervention. Non-smokers were more in favour of legislative actions to discourage tobacco use than current smokers. These findings suggest that medical school authorities should design and implement an appropriate basic training aimed at better preparing medical students for their future role in prevention of smoking. Specific teaching of medical students about smoking-related diseases and a patient-centered smoking cessation intervention is required to provide future medical practitioners with the knowledge and skills they need to effectively intervene with smokers.     

Smoking behaviour and attitudes among Australian medical students

Teaching about tobacco and related diseases is essential in the undergraduate medical course in order for students to gain knowledge about smoking and how to intervene with patients who smoke. The objective of the study was to assess students'smoking-related behaviour, knowledge and attitudes towards tobacco, and perceptions of their future role as doctors. Data were collected from two consecutive years of year 1 and year 5 medical students at the University of New South Wales, Sydney. A total of 594 (79%) of students across the 2 years completed the survey: 90% of year 1 students, and 69% of year 5 students. The daily smoking rate among the total medical students was 2.9%: 11.8% in year 1 (2.3% daily, 9.5% occasional) and 13.7% in year 5 (3.3% daily, 10.4% occasional). There were significantly more male than female smokers in year 5 (P < 0.05). The overall smoking rates for males in years 1 and 5 were 12.4% and 19.3%, and the smoking rates for females were 11.2% and 8%. Knowledge about the causal role of tobacco in the development of specific diseases improved significantly from year 1 to year 5 (P < 0.001). Nevertheless, in year 5 there remained a lack of knowledge about the relationship of smoking and some diseases. Fifty-seven per cent of students thought that their current knowledge was sufficient to counsel smokers, with year 5 students (89%) being far more positive than year 1 students (34%) (P < 0.001). Teaching medical students about smoking-related diseases and a patient-centred smoking cessation intervention results in an increase in knowledge, as well as positive perceptions about their future role in intervening with smokers.     

Tobacco smoking habits,attitudes and beliefs among nurse and medical students in Tuscany

In this study we evaluated the smoking habits, beliefs and attitudes of nurse and medical students at the University of Siena and Florence, Italy. Students who entered the 1st year of school in 1998 were asked to complete a self-administered anonymous questionnaire. Two hundred medical students completed the questionnaire; they had a mean age (±SD) of 19.8 ± 1.7 years and 68% were females. A total of 205 nurse respondents answered to the questionnaire; they had a mean age of 21.8 ± 4.1 years and females were 83% of the total. The overall response rate among students always remained higher than 85%. Thirty per cent of medical students were current smokers, and 5% former-smokers. A total of 43% of nurse students were current smokers and 11.5% former-smokers. Nurse students were more likely to smoke than medical students (p= 0.001). Among current smokers, the number of daily cigarettes smoked and the degree of nicotine addiction did not differ between groups. The prevalence of maternal smoking were higher among nurse students. In spite of students' beliefs the knowledge about smoking remained generic in both groups. Nurse students were less aware than medical students of their special responsibility towards people about tobacco smoking. Such a difference remained significant also after adjustment for smoking status (p< 0.01). Students overestimated the prevalence of current smokers among health caregivers of the local hospitals, and Italian people and adolescents. Targeted and continuous training about smoking prevention should be mandatory in Italian medical and nurse schools.     

Risk factors for smoking among school adolescents in Greece

Objective We conducted this study among school adolescents to identify factors, which influence schoolchildren to smoke. Methods We carried out a cross‐sectional study in a sample of 924 students of all classes (ages 12–18 years old) in 15 public high schools in a semi‐urban area in Crete, Greece, using a questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised of 46 questions covering children's lifestyle habits regarding daily activities and leisure time, frequency of risk‐taking behaviour, knowledge about the hazards and long‐term consequences of smoking. Results 23.9% of participants were experimental smokers and 18.6% were current smokers. 11.4% of the total population was daily smokers. There was a significant increase in the prevalence of experimental and current smokers with school grades, while peaks in last grades were observed. Boys started smoking earlier than girls, mean (standard error) age 13.4 (2.3) years vs. 14.1 (2.3) years, P = 0.01. Stepwise logistic regression analysis showed a positive relationship between current smoking and having brother or sister smoking [odds ratio (95% confidence interval) 2.7 (1.7–4.4) and 1.8 (1.1–3.3) respectively], having more than three friends who were smokers [2.6 (2–3.4)] and last school grade [1.4 (1.2–1.7)]. Students appeared to be informed about long‐term smoking hazards and had negative views on children who smoke especially in the lower grades. Conclusions Prevention programmes should be imposed early in elementary schools while cessation policies should target at all grades, in particular at critical grades depending on population‐specific characteristics.     

Tobacco smoking habits, beliefs, and attitudes among medical students in Tirana, Albania

BACKGROUND: Many surveys throughout the world have evaluated the smoking behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes of medical students, but no information is available from Albania. METHOD: A cross-sectional survey in classroom settings using a self-administered questionnaire was performed at the University of Tirana during October 2000. RESULTS: In the first and fifth years of medical school, 149 (68.5% women) and 185 (55% women) students, respectively, completed the questionnaire, with overall response rates of 82 and 92%. Tobacco smoking prevailed among males. The smoking rates among first-year medical students were 34% among men and 5% among women. Among fifth-year students, 55% of the men and 34% of the women smoked. The percentages of occasional smokers were 29 and 49%, respectively, among the first- and fifth-year students who smoked. Most medical students reported knowing the health hazards of tobacco. Most students in both groups believed that smoking should be restricted in hospitals. Slightly more than half of the students stated that they will regularly advise smokers against smoking in their future jobs. CONCLUSION: Tobacco smoking is common among medical students in Albania. Targeted antismoking training should be mandatory for medical students in Albania.     

Effect of diet and physical exercise intervention programmes on coronary heart disease risk in smoking and non-smoking men in Sweden.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To investigate differences between smokers and non-smokers in health behaviour, cardiovascular risk factors, coronary heart disease (CHD) risks, health knowledge, health attitudes, and compliance with a CHD prevention programme. DESIGN: Differences between smokers and non-smokers were studied via medical examinations, questionnaires, physical exercise activity logs, and food record sheets. Data were analysed using univariate and multivariate analyses. The five and 10 year CHD risks were assessed using the Framingham CHD risk estimate. SETTING: The Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, and Sollentuna Primary Health Centre, Sollentuna, Sweden. PARTICIPANTS: The analyses were based on 158 healthy smoking and non-smoking men aged 35-60 years with raised cardiovascular risk factors who enrolled in controlled, randomised six month diet and exercise programmes. MAIN RESULTS: Discriminant analysis suggested that smokers, compared with non-smokers, were characterised by a higher alcohol energy percent, lower HDL cholesterol concentration, lower systolic blood pressure, and a higher plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) value. Knowledge of the risk factors for CHD was not a discriminating factor. Both smokers and non-smokers increased the exercise taken, improved their diet, and lowered their CHD risk. Before, as well as after the intervention, smokers had a higher CHD risk than non-smokers. CONCLUSIONS: The best CHD prevention action that could be taken by smokers would of course be to quit smoking. Those who cannot stop should be encouraged to improve their diet and increase the amount of physical exercise they take in order to reduce the health hazards of their smoking behaviour.     

医学与非医学大学生吸烟相关KAP的比较分析

目的探讨医学教育对大学生有关吸烟的知识、信念、行为的影响。方法整群抽取某大学1～3年级在校学生8760名，采用自填式结构问卷调查学生的一般特征和吸烟相关的知识、信念、行为。结果女性各年级和男性二、三年级医学生的吸烟相关知识水平显著高于非医学生。二年级男女医学生吸烟相关信念得分显著高于非医学生，其余2个年级，医学生和非医学生之间差异均无统计学意义。入学前的尝试吸烟者中，在入学后发展为不规律吸烟者，医学显著低于非医学生；但形成规律吸烟者在两组学生中差异无统计学意义。入学前未吸烟者中．入学后医学生的尝试吸烟率显著低于非医学生，但两组学生的规律和不规律吸烟率差异均无统计学意义。结论医学教育能够提高医学生吸烟相关的知识，可以降低入学前未吸烟者的尝试吸烟率和入学前已尝试吸烟者的不规律吸烟率。     

Adolescent smoking and the social capital of local communities in three counties in Romania

ObjectiveTo identify the effect of social capital on adolescent smoking.MethodA stratified random sample of 1313 7th and 8th grade students from three counties in Transylvania, Romania, completed a self-administered questionnaire on smoking-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviours. The impact of social capital was measured (personal and community activities, school achievements and smoking-related knowledge). Multivariate multinomial logistic regression models were used to measure the association between social participation and smoking.ResultsExperimenting with smoking was mostly related to knowledge about smoking, academic performance and second-hand tobacco smoke exposure at home. The strongest risk factor of adolescent smoking was the smoking behaviour of classmates: those who reported a significant proportion of smokers among their classmates were nine times more likely to smoke themselves than in other cases (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 9.05). Those who considered smoking to be harmless were 4 times more likely to be smokers than those who considered this behaviour to be dangerous (aOR: 4.28). Poor academic results increased adolescents’ smoking (aOR: 3.22 and 2.66). The odds were significantly higher for smoking, if they had an active social life (aOR: 2.54). Regular church attendance proved to be a protective factor (aOR: 0.45).ConclusionsSeveral social capital factors can play a role in adolescent smoking. The organization and the development of community activities aimed at prevention must strengthen the factors related to the community's social capital to reduce the likelihood of teenage smoking.     

Smoking patterns at a British and at an American medical school

Cigarette smoking among medical students at the University of Bristol (Bristol) and the New York University School of Medicine (NYU) was investigated and differences were subjected to statistical analysis.
At Bristol 34–6% and at NYU 14–3% of respondents classified themselves as regular smokers. Among students in the pre-clinical phase of training the difference between the number of smokers at Bristol and at NYU was not significant. At both schools more clinical students smoked than preclinical students, but only at Bristol did the difference between the number of smokers in the two grade levels reach statistical significance.
There are fewer heavy smokers (consumers of more than twenty cigarettes per day) among the pre-clinical students at Bristol than among preclinicals at NYU. In the clinical year, however, there were slightly (insignificantly) fewer heavy smokers at NYU while there were significantly more at Bristol.
Smokers at NYU acquired the habit at a somewhat earlier age than the smokers at Bristol.
The majority of students at both schools indicated that medical education had not influenced their decision to smoke or not to smoke.
Most smokers—more among the clinical than the pre-clinical students—reported that they were displeased with their habit and that they wished to give it up. Somewhat fewer smokers at Bristol gave that response than students at NYU.
Factors contributing, at least in part, to the differences between smoking patterns observed may be variables of age and years of education.
The widely held but untested belief that precept and example by medical school teachers may be a potent force for modifying the smoking behaviour of health professionals, is in need of research.     

四川某医学院校学生控烟课程干预效果评价

目的了解医学生控烟课程干预效果。方法在2013年3-6月在某医学院校对115名医学生实施控烟课程。在控烟课程实施前后,采用由中国控烟中心统一制作的问卷对医学生进行抽样调查。在描述性研究的基础上,采用χ2检验和秩和检验探讨控烟课程实施前后医学生在控烟态度及相关认知等方面的变化。结果控烟课程实施后,所调查学生的吸烟率由干预前的11.3%降为7.0%(P0.05);而且控烟态度更加明确(P0.05),尤其是在不可出售卷烟给青少年、应在舞厅酒吧游戏厅禁烟以及健康工作者应该成为病人或大众不吸烟的楷模三方面的态度很明确;在控烟课程实施后,不吸烟者对于将来自已肯定不会吸烟的态度更明确(P0.05),有超过90%的人认为控烟课程对今后的帮助有用,并且,有20%的人表示就目前所掌握的知识和技能能够帮助吸烟者戒烟。结论控烟课程提升了医学生的控烟态度及相关认知,能够帮助减少未来的吸烟者,可更广泛实施。     

Knowledge and perceived risk of smoking-related conditions: a survey of cigarette smokers

BACKGROUND: Previous studies suggest that smokers minimize the personal health risk of smoking. Smokers may not be aware of the various smoking-related disease risks or believe that they are susceptible to them. METHODS: We presented 537 adult treatment-seeking smokers with a list of 34 medical conditions, of which 25 were smoking-related conditions, and 9 were nonsmoking-related items. Subjects were asked to identify which medical conditions were smoking-related, and to rate their perceived risk (using a 7-point Likert scale) of developing various smoking-related conditions if they continued to smoke. RESULTS: The average percentage of knowledge items correct for each disease category included cardiovascular (93%), pulmonary (94%), oral health diseases (89%), smoking-related cancers (71%), and reproductive risks (44%). Premature death was identified as a risk by 95% of smokers yet only 63.5% reported that disability could also result from smoking. Knowledge was associated with perceived risk of smoking-related illnesses across disease categories. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge and perceived risk of cardiovascular, pulmonary, and oral disease was high among current smokers; knowledge and perceived risk of reproductive-related problems, and cancers other than lung cancer was much lower. Smokers recognize that smoking may result in premature death, but are less likely to acknowledge that smoking could result in a disability significantly affecting their quality of life.     

北京市区医院医务人员吸烟状况及参与控烟干预态度调查

目的 了解目前我市医务人员的吸烟状况及对参与控烟的态度及其成因，为有针对性地对医务人员这一专业群体进行戒烟培训，提高其控烟意识，促使其在日常工作中积极参与控烟工作提供依据。方法 1999年对北京市4所医院的300名医务人员进行问卷调查。结果 男性医务人员吸烟率48．1％，其中40－49岁年龄组的吸烟率明显低于其它年龄组。医务人员对有关吸烟的心脏病，糖水病，溃疡病等危害认识率不足50％。认为医务人员的戒烟建议会有效的比例占61．6％。有73．6％的医务人员愿意工作中加入戒烟内容，不吸烟者与吸烟者的态度存在显著差异。不愿意参与控烟的原因主要有：工作忙，忘记和自己本身吸烟。结论 必须加强对所有卫生专业人员进行基本的专业戒烟培训，引导医务工作者正控烟态度，把控烟视为一种职责。     

Smoking by French general practitioners: behaviour, attitudes and practice

INTRODUCTION: This paper examines smoking prevalence, sociodemographic factors and the medical practice of French general practitioners. METHOD: Data from the 1998 cross-sectional national survey of 2,073 GPs. The questionnaire was administered by telephone. A response rate of 67% was attained. Instrumentation included questions about medical practice, sociodemographic characteristics, and health behaviour. Bivariate and multiple logistic regression (MLR) analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Almost one-third (32.1%) of physicians were current smokers. A significantly higher proportion of male (33.9%) were smokers compared to women (25.4%, p<0.001) and men were more likely to be former smokers (49.1% versus 31.7%). Two-thirds of physicians reported recommending nicotine replacement therapy to their patients. MLR shown that former smokers were more likely (OR = 1.51, 95% CI, 1.24-1.83) to indicate that their help in getting patients to quit was not effective compared to smokers. Also, physicians who were 'dissatisfied' with the profession were more likely (OR = 0.75, 95% CI, 0.60-0.92) to report their help as not effective than those who were 'satisfied'. CONCLUSION: These data support the need for greater professional participation in reducing smoking among general practitioners in France and greater education concerning the vital role of physicians in promoting cessation among the general population. KEY POINTS: This study examines smoking habits among French GP's, intervention practices, and opinions about their ability to help patients quit smoking. This study found a smoking prevalence rate of 32.1%, 33.9% of male physicians were smokers and 25.4% of women. This study found a smoking prevalence rate of 32.1%, 33.9% of male physicians were smokers and 25.4% of women.     

Parental smoking and sociodemographic factors related to smoking among German medical students

Smoking among medical students has been found to vary strongly between European countries. Few studies have addressed factors associated with smoking among medical students within countries. In this study, we assessed the association of parental smoking and sociodemographic factors with smoking habits of medical students at the University of Ulm, Germany, Students who entered the 1st, 3rd and 5th year of medical school in fall 1992 were asked to complete a self-administered questionnaire. Questionnaires were returned by 696 (85.2%) of 817 eligible students. Overall, 23.7% of students were current smokers, and 11.9% were former smokers. Smoking habits were related to maternal smoking: Odds ratios for the association of maternal smoking with ever or current smoking of students were 2.11 (95% CI: 1.48–3.03) and 2.01 (95% CI: 1.35–3.01), respectively, after adjustment for potential confounders in multiple logistic regression. In contrast, no asso-ciation was found between paternal smoking and students' smoking status. Male students were more likely to smoke than female students, and living in a large city during secondary school was also associated with ever smoking. No association was found between students' smoking habits and educational achievement of their mothers and fathers. These results suggest a key role of maternal smoking for smoking among medical students in this society.     

The smoking and dietary behaviour of lambeth schoolchildren II. the relationship between knowledge, attitudes and behaviour

As part of a study designed to examine the effect of a health education programme on 10-year-old schoolchildren, information was obtained on the children's knowledge, attitudes and behaviour concerning two health hazards, namely smoking and obesity. Cross sectional analyses showed that children who smoked were as aware of the health hazards of smoking as non-smokers but were less likely to hold anti-smoking attitudes. They were also more likely to think of themselves as “naughty” and “silly”. Conversely, children who subsequently adopted smoking were less aware of the health hazards of smoking than those who remained non-smokers. There was good evidence that obese children possessed more nutritional knowledge than the non-obese, and their attitudes to diet differed little. No relationship was demonstrated between reported energy intake and obesity, either cross sectionally or longitudinally. Relationships between knowledge and attitudes towards nutrition and the development of obesity were investigated, but there was only one significant finding, namely that boys identifying correct statements about nutrition put on less fat than other boys.