Race/Ethnicity and Gender Differences in the Drugs-Violence Relationship

Abstract

This article examines the drug relatedness of violent events reported by White, Black, and Hispanic male and female street drug users from New York City. The primary purpose is to determine if the drugs-violence relationship varies for these different populations of drug abusers. Drug relatedness is assessed according to a tripartite conceptual model of the general relationship between drugs and violence. Significant race/ethnicity and gender differences were found in regard to the number of violent events manifesting specific drug-related dimensions of violence, the drugs associated with these violent events, and the primary reasons for the occurrence ofthese events. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Drug Relationships in Violence Among Methadone Maintenance Treatment Clients

In this paper the nature, scope, and drug relatedness of violent events reported by a sample of methadone maintenance treatment clients is examined and compared with events reported by a sample of drug abusers not in treatment. The drug relatedness of events is ascertained according to a tripartite model of the drugs-violence relationship. Data derive from a study of the drugs-violence nexus among male drug users and distributors who lived in or frequented the lower east side of Manhattan. Among the major findings were that while events reported by the treatment group were less likely than those reported by the not-in-treatment group to be related to heroin, total alcohol and cocaine related dimensions of violence were similar for the two groups. There was no difference between these groups in terms of the proportion of events that were drug related or the proportion of drug related events that could be attributed to each of the three posited models of drug relatedness. The implications of our findings are discussed.     

Drug Use and Violence Among Adolescents: The Mediation Effect of Attitudes Supporting Violence

The aim of this article is to study the impact of violent attitudes on the drug use/violent delinquency relationship. A total of 1,420 adolescents from the province of Rimini (Italy) completed a questionnaire concerning drug use, violent behaviors, and attitudes toward violence. In general, the results seem to confirm that part of the literature that suggests that people who make frequent use of drugs are also those subjects who are more frequently involved in violent behaviors. However, mediation analyses show that both soft and hard drug use have an indirect effect—mediated by attitudes of violence—on violent behaviors. The results suggest the influence of sociopsychological variables (i.e., attitudes and culture of violence) on the relationship between drug abuse and violent behavior. In planning policies to prevent violent behavior, educational and political institutions should encourage interventions addressed to the promotion of a nonviolent culture.     

The drugs-violence nexus among American and Canadian youth.

This paper examines the relationship between drug use and violence among representative samples of students in the United States and Ontario, Canada. Canada has significantly lower levels of violent crime than the United States, but students report similar rates of drug use. Using logistic regression analysis, we find a similar relationship between drug use and violence among adolescents in the two countries. All the drugs considered--cannabis, cocaine, and alcohol binge drinking--are significantly related to violent behavior; whether the perpetrator or the victim. The most noteworthy difference may be that in Ontario, drug use appears to be even more highly correlated with violence than in the United States.     

THE DRUGS–VIOLENCE NEXUS AMONG AMERICAN AND CANADIAN YOUTH†

This paper examines the relationship between drug use and violence among representative samples of students in the United States and Ontario, Canada. Canada has significantly lower levels of violent crime than the United States, but students report similar rates of drug use. Using logistic regression analysis, we find a similar relationship between drug use and violence among adolescents in the two countries. All the drugs considered—cannabis, cocaine, and alcohol binge drinking—are significantly related to violent behavior; whether the perpetrator or the victim. The most noteworthy difference may be that in Ontario, drug use appears to be even more highly correlated with violence than in the United States.     

The interplay between trauma,substance abuse and appetitive aggression and its relation to criminal activity among high-risk males in South Africa

BackgroundIn persistently unsafe environments, the cumulative exposure to violence predicts not only the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but also of increased aggression and violent outbursts. Substance use disorders interact with these developments, as drug consumption may blunt symptoms and also reduce the threshold for violent acts. Investigating the interplay between these variables and the possible cumulative effect of drug abuse on the attraction to cruelty is a crucial step in understanding the cycle of violence and developing intervention programs that address this cycle in violence-troubled communities such as low-income urban areas in South Africa.MethodsYoung males at risk (N = 290) were recruited through a reintegration center for offenders in Cape Town. We assessed types of traumatic events experienced, PTSD symptom severity, appetitive aggression, committed offenses and patterns of drug abuse prior to the perpetration of violence.ResultsPath-analyses confirmed a positive relationship between exposure to traumatic events and PTSD symptom severity, appetitive aggression, the number of committed offenses and drug abuse prior to violence. PTSD symptoms were positively associated with the propensity toward aggression. Furthermore, more severe drug abuse was related to higher attraction to violence and more committed offenses.ConclusionsWe conclude that like exposure to violence, drug abuse may play a key role in the attraction to aggression and criminal acts. Measures of violence prevention and psychotherapeutic interventions for trauma-related suffering may not be effective without enduring drug abuse rehabilitation.     

Women and Violence: A Different Look

SUMMARY

The incidents of violence involving women and the use of alcohol and other drugs (AOD) among women has increased at an alarming rate. In spite of this, little research has been conducted on the role (i.e., perpetrator vs. victim) that drug using women assume in different episodes and/or settings of violence, and with whom these violent encounters occur. This study describes the self reported life experience of violent encounters of 98 women enrolled in a residential drug treatment center in Tucson, Arizona. Results of the study indicate that many of the women were both the perpetrators and victims of violence. Additionally, the results indicate that aggressive acts from or against others may, in part, be related to the amount of power or control that women had in the relationship as well as the setting in which the violence occurred.     

The drugs-violence nexus among Mexican-American gang members

This study examines hypotheses and builds models to help clarify the causal connections between drugs and violence outcomes among Mexican-American male gang members. The study uses cross-sectional data of 160 male gang members sampled from 26 gangs in a Southwestern city. A life-history /intensive interview using closed and open-ended questions and a violence risk psychometric test (PFAV) also employed 10 scenario questions to elicit self-produced accounts of the participant's last fight. Gang member participant's ages ranged from 14 to 25 years with a mean age of 18.5 years. The study concludes that drug use interacts with an individual gang member's risk for violence to affect violent behavior outcomes. Furthermore, an important situational variable explaining violent outcomes among respondents scoring high on the violence risk measure was whether the rival was using drugs that resulted in high intoxication levels. The study concludes that drugs have a modulating and mediating influence on violence that is conditioned by situational and individual level variables among members of these adolescent street gangs.     

The Drugs-Violence Nexus Among Mexican-American Gang Members

Abstract

This study examines hypotheses and builds models to help clarify the causal connections between drugs and violence outcomes among Mexican-American male gang members. The study uses cross-sectional data of 160 male gang members sampled from 26 gangs in a Southwestern city. A life-history /intensive interview using closed and open-ended questions and a violence risk psychometric test (PFAV) also employed 10 scenario questions to elicit self-produced accounts of the participant's last fight. Gangmember participant's ages ranged from 14 to 25 years with a mean age of 18.5 years. The study concludes that drug use interacts with an individual gang member's risk for violence to affect violent behavior outcomes. Furthermore, an important situational variable explaining violent outcomes among respondents scoring high on the violence risk measure was whether the rival was using drugs that resulted in high intoxicatiion levels. The study concludes that drugs have a modulating and mediating influence on violence that is conditioned by situational and individual level variables among members of these adolescent street gangs.     

Factors associated with partner violence among female alcoholic patients and their male partners

OBJECTIVE: This study described the extent of partner violence victimization and perpetration among married or cohabiting female alcoholic patients and the factors associated with it. METHOD: Male-to-female and female-to-male physical partner violence were examined for 103 female alcoholic patients seeking couples-based outpatient alcoholism treatment. Partner violent (PV) and nonpartner violent (NPV) groups were compared on hypothesized risk factors. RESULTS: In the year before treatment, about two thirds of the women were victimized by their male partners, and a similar proportion engaged in violence toward their male partners. Severe violence also was high, with 22% victimization and 50% perpetration prevalence. Women committed more violent acts overall and were more likely to commit severely violent acts than the men in these couples. Risk factors for PV in both the victimization and perpetration models were as predicted: less education, lower income, greater relationship problems, stronger beliefs in the link between relationship problems and the female patient's drinking, greater cocaine use by the perpetrator of violence and greater emotional distress of the men. Greater alcohol and drug use and more severe alcohol problems also distinguished male perpetrators from their nonviolent counterparts in the female victimization model. Predictions that female patients in the PV group would report greater substance use and problems, childhood violence exposure and emotional distress than their female counterparts in the NPV group were not supported for either victimization or perpetration models. CONCLUSIONS: Partner violence is a serious problem for women in alcoholism treatment. More research is needed to increase understanding of risk factors and explanatory models for such violence.     

Drug 'hot-spots', alcohol availability and violence

Ecological studies have shown a relationship between alcohol outlet densities and violence and between the location of crimes related to illicit drug use (so-called 'hot spots') and violence. To date, no study has compared the effects of alcohol outlets and drug hot spots on rates of violence. The present study examined this relationship in the City of Houston, Texas. An ecological study design was employed, using a sample of 439 census tracts from Houston, Texas. Neighborhood socio-structural, alcohol outlet density, drug crime density and violent crime density data were collected from archival sources and analyzed using multivariate and spatial statistics. Using ordinary least-squares analysis, the neighborhood socio-structural covariates explained about 40% of the variability in violent crime. Adding alcohol outlet density in the target census tracts explained an additional 6%, while the addition of drug crime density explained an additional 32%. In the final model, that controlled for the effects of autocorrelated error, both drug crime density in the target and adjacent census tracts remained significant predictors of violent crime, while only off-sale density in the target census tract remained significant in the model. The findings indicate that drug crime density explained a greater amount of variance in violent crime rates than the alcohol outlet density. The methodological and policy implications of these findings are discussed, along with the shortcomings of the analysis presented. [Gorman DM, Zhu L, Horel S. Drug 'hot-spots', alcohol availability and violence. Drug Alcohol Rev 2005;24:507-513]     

Predisposed violent drug users versus drug users who commit violence: Does the order of onset translate to differences in the severity of violent offending?

Introduction and Aims. To determine whether there were differences in drug use profiles, psychopathology, and severity of violence among regular illicit drug users in respect to the order of onset of drug use and violence. Design and Methods. A cross‐sectional survey utilising self‐report data was administered to 327 regular illicit drug users in Sydney, Australia. Results. Those who first committed violent crime prior to illicit drug use were found to have more serious offending patterns (greater frequency, arrest for more serious violence, earlier age of onset, and more weapon use). Being male, having a history of child abuse and greater severity of conduct disorder were independent predictors of committing violence before drug use. Discussion and Conclusions. Whilst the nature of the data does not permit causative conclusions, it appears that the order of onset of illicit drug use and violent crime is associated with heterogeneous offending patterns. Early onset violence was associated with more severe violent crimes in later adulthood, whereas violence which proceeded drug use was more strongly linked to systemic risks. The findings have implications for early intervention among children with conduct disorder and also for using drug and alcohol treatment services to reduce specific risks associated with violence.[Torok M, Darke S, Kaye S. Predisposed violent drug users versus drug users who commit violence: Does the order of onset translate to differences in the severity of violent offending? Drug Alcohol Rev 2012;31:558–565]     

Danish Experiences of National Campaigns on Alcohol 1990–1996

Substance use has long been associated with violent behaviour, particularly the use of alcohol and stimulants. This paper presents findings from a study of the effectiveness of treatment services for amphetamine users, describing profiles for those reporting violent and aggressive behaviour and documenting their experiences. The sample (n = 86) comprised two groups: amphetamine users seeking drug treatment and a matched case control group of amphetamine users who were not receiving treatment. Forty-seven per cent of the sample reported having committed a violent crime, and half of them associated the violence with their amphetamine use. In addition, 62% repeated ongoing problems with aggression which were related to their amphetamine use. A wide range of factors are discussed in this paper, using established models of association between drug use and violence, and also exploring issues such as the interaction of alcohol and other drugs, the effects of trying to abstain from amphetamine, psychological co-morbidity, the impact of amphetamine's reputation for inducing aggression, and conversely, amphetamine as a drug of choice over alcohol to try to minimize aggressive behaviour. The paper concludes with a discussion of the problems posed by aggressive and violent behaviour for amphetamine users seeking treatment.     

Drug Crisis Intervention: Conceptual and Pragmatic Considerations

Abstract

This research explores the relationship between use of certain drugs and aggressive crimes among Mexican-American and White male arrestees in San Antonio, Texas, for 1992. This is based on a Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) sample of 534 male arrestees administered a drug urine analysis test and questionnaire by the Department of Justice and the city of San Antonio. Using a four-way asymmetrical analysis, logit-models were tested to examine the relationships between the response variable, the types of crimes charged (nonaggressive versus aggressive) and a set of exploratory variables, ethnicity (White versus Hispanic), drug test results (positive versus negative), and alcohol use (infrequent versus frequent). The logit-analysis allows the specification of a subset of relevant models to be tested for their adequacy of fit. Findings indicate a complex but interpretable pattern between drug use, alcohol use patterns, and aggressive crimes. A surprising finding was that more aggressive crimes were committed by all men testing negative for drugs. Mexican-Americans with frequent alcohol use and testing positive for drugs were twice as likely to commit an aggressive crime (a crime associated with violence) than Whites in the same subgroup. The implication of these findings for prevention strategies aimed at alcohol and other drug users involved in violent behavior is discussed.     

Pilot study of the relationship between drug misuse and violence among drug addicts in Greater Accra, Ghana: the south of Saharan Africa case

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationships between drug use/misuse and the prevalence of violence in sub-Saharan Africa. This study was undertaken as a pilot study to provide direction for a large-scale, systematic, countrywide or regional analysis. Hypotheses tested include the following: 1) drug use/misuse is related to violent behavior; 2) drug use/misuse is related to predatory violent behavior; and 3) drug use/misuse increases the likelihood that those addicted to drugs will commit violent acts. In order to test these hypotheses, two data sets were used to increase the robustness of the study. The first data set was collected during the summer of 1996, and was based on a self-reported survey of 117 subjects (17 women and 100 men), from different neighborhoods in Greater Accra and from different ethnic groups, mean age of 32, most were unemployed. The second data set was collected during the summer of 1997, based on a self-reported survey of 216 (45 women and 171 men) subjects from different neighborhoods in Greater Accra, from different ethnic groups, mean age of 31, most of whom were also unemployed. All hypotheses were confirmed by analysis of the data collected. This suggests that an expanded, countrywide study using the same procedures and instrumentation would provide a meaningful foundation for sound decisions by governmental officials and policy-makers in dealing with drug use and violence in Ghana. Further, the approach could serve as a model for other countries addressing similar problems.     

Violent Crime, Aggression and Amphetamine: what are the implications for drug treatment services?

Substance use has long been associated with violent behaviour, particularly the use of alcohol and stimulants. This paper presents findings from a study of the effectiveness of treatment services for amphetamine users, describing profiles for those reporting violent and aggressive behaviour and documenting their experiences. The sample (n = 86) comprised two groups: amphetamine users seeking drug treatment and a matched case control group of amphetamine users who were not receiving treatment. Forty-seven per cent of the sample reported having committed a violent crime, and half of them associated the violence with their amphetamine use. In addition, 62% repeated ongoing problems with aggression which were related to their amphetamine use. A wide range of factors are discussed in this paper, using established models of association between drug use and violence, and also exploring issues such as the interaction of alcohol and other drugs, the effects of trying to abstain from amphetamine, psychological co-morbidity, the impact of amphetamine's reputation for inducing aggression, and conversely, amphetamine as a drug of choice over alcohol to try to minimize aggressive behaviour. The paper concludes with a discussion of the problems posed by aggressive and violent behaviour for amphetamine users seeking treatment.     

Pilot Study of the Relationship Between Drug Misuse and Violence Among Drug Addicts in Greater Accra,Ghana: The South of Saharan Africa Case

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationships between drug use/misuse and the prevalence of violence in sub-Saharan Africa. This study was undertaken as a pilot study to provide direction for a large-scale, systematic, countrywide or regional analysis. Hypotheses tested include the following: 1) drug use/misuse is related to violent behavior; 2) drug use/misuse is related to predatory violent behavior; and 3) drug use/misuse increases the likelihood that those addicted to drugs will commit violent acts.

In order to test these hypotheses, two data sets were used to increase the robustness of the study. The first data set was collected during the summer of 1996, and was based on a self-reported survey of 117 subjects (17 women and 100 men), from different neighborhoods in Greater Accra and from different ethnic groups, mean age of 32, most were unemployed. The second data set was collected during the summer of 1997, based on a self-reported survey of 216 (45 women and 171 men) subjects from different neighborhoods in Greater Accra, from different ethnic groups, mean age of 31, most of whom were also unemployed.

All hypotheses were confirmed by analysis of the data collected. This suggests that an expanded, countrywide study using the same procedures and instrumentation would provide a meaningful foundation for sound decisions by governmental officials and policy-makers in dealing with drug use and violence in Ghana. Further, the approach could serve as a model for other countries addressing similar problems.     

Use of anabolic androgenic steroids in substance abusers arrested for crime

Background

Use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) has been associated with both violent crime and the use of illicit drugs. The scientific literature on polysubstance abuse as a confounder for AAS-related violence is sparse and ambiguous. With the intent of further investigating this issue, we have gathered data concerning drug abuse and AAS experience among substance abusers who have been arrested for a variety of crimes.

Methods

Data were collected from structured interviews with substance abusers (n = 3597) apprehended at two remand prisons in Sweden from 2002 through 2008. Analyses concerned type of criminal act, primary drug used during the past year, and experience of AAS use.

Results

Those stating AAS experience (n = 924, 20 women and 904 men) were more often apprehended for violent crimes (OR = 1.65). This association remained significant after controlling for age and sex (OR = 1.28). AAS users and non-users claimed similar primary substances of use during the past year, with the exception of benzodiazepine use, which was more common in the AAS group (OR = 2.30), although this did not affect the frequency of violent crime. Among AAS-experienced participants, there was no difference in violent crime incidence between current users and former users.

Conclusions

Study results suggest that AASs do not function as a proximal trigger for violence but still involve an increased risk for violence in users of illicit drugs. These findings also suggest that AAS use is highly overrepresented in women who commit crimes.     

The Geography of Drug Activity and Violence: Analyzing Spatial Relationships of Non-Homogenous Crime Event Types

The pervasiveness of interest regarding the theme of a relationship between street-level drug activity and violence has been reflected throughout criminal justice research, policy, and practice as well as in public opinion. Most research has focused on the connection between the two at the individual level. This study extends previous research by examining the place-based relationship between drugs and violence. To do so, this project employs three spatial statistical approaches—measures of spatial intensity/density, measures of spatial dependence for drugs and violence separately, and a modified spatial dependence approach for non-homogenous populations to explore the relationship between drug activity and violence. The findings indicate that while drugs and violence often exhibit overlapping spatial patterns, important variations exist in the spatial relationship between the two.