支架象鼻手术治疗急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层

目的 总结深低温停循环下支架象鼻手术治疗急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层的临床经验.方法 对146例急性Stanford B 型主动脉夹层患者行支架象鼻手术.结果 平均体外循环时间(155±30)min,平均心肌阻断时间(32±3)min,停循环时间(20±3)min.住院死亡3例(2.05 %,3/146),术后脑栓塞及脑出血各1例.随访138例,随访时间4～98个月,平均57.3个月,1年生存率为97.16%(137/141),1例11个月后死于广泛性肠坏死.无截瘫及再次手术者.结论 支架象鼻植入术治疗急性Stanford B 型主动脉夹层简单、安全、有效.     

主动脉夹层的腔内支架植入治疗体会

目的 探讨带膜支架腔内植入治疗Stanford B型主动脉夹层的效果.方法 对2002年1月至2007年9月间15例Stanford B型主动脉夹层的患者实行了血管造影和血管腔内带膜支架植入手术治疗.结果 除1例出现胸背部轻度疼痛外,其余患者症状完全消失,全部患者在随访期间均未出现术前症状.结论 带膜支架腔内植入治疗Stanford B型主动脉夹层是一种安全有效的方法.     

血管腔内治疗主动脉夹层和夹层动脉瘤

目的 探讨血管腔内治疗主动脉夹层和夹层动脉瘤的技术方法和疗效。方法 对20例主动脉夹层和夹层动脉瘤患者的临床资料进行分析。Stanford A型2例,其中1例内膜撕裂口位于升主动脉。Stanford B型18例。5例在不同部位有2个以上撕裂口。全组均以带膜支架型人工血管腔内植入行隔绝术。其中1例加作腹主动脉开窗和人工血管置换术,1例先行升主动脉．左锁骨下动脉和左颈总动脉Y形人工血管旁路术,再行腔内隔绝术。结果 无一例患者术中死亡,术后3d 1例Stanford B型患者死于心肌梗死,其余19例健康存活,生存率95％。术后随访1—20个月,各例主动脉夹层和动脉瘤均消失,无内漏,各器官灌注良好。结论 血管腔内植入带膜支架型人工血管是治疗主动脉夹层和夹层动脉瘤的简便、安全而有效的方法。手术死亡率低,手术成功率和生存率高。     

急性Stanford B型主动脉壁间血肿的治疗

目的 探讨急性Stanford B型主动脉壁间血肿的治疗方法和预后.方法 总结2001年1月至2008年3月收治的Stanford B型主动脉壁间血肿29例的临床资料.依据以下标准将患者分为三组:(1)有主动脉硬化性穿透性溃疡;(2)血压不易控制;(3)持续胸背部不适.符合上述任何一项的患者入选为腔内治疗组(13例),其余患者归入药物治疗组(16例).腔内治疗组采用降主动脉覆膜支架置入术;药物治疗组只接受降压、止痛等内科保守治疗.结果 本组29例患者均获随访,随访时间6～89个月,平均(19±16)个月,药物治疗组16例患者3例病情进展为夹层予支架治疗,2例突发主动脉破裂而死亡,疾病恶化率为31.25%,死亡率为12.5%;腔内支架治疗组13例患者随访期间未见夹层复发、支架移位及其他并发症.总共置入覆膜支架16个.结论 急性Stanford B型主动脉壁间血肿疾病恶化率高,腔内覆膜支架置入术是积极有效的治疗方法.     

急性主动脉综合征的诊断和治疗

目的 探讨包括急性主动脉夹层形成（AD）主动脉壁间血肿（IMH）和穿透性主动脉溃疡（PAU）的诊断和治疗方法。方法 2004年9月至2009年1月,南京医科大学附属第一医院血管外科共收治126例急性主动脉综合征（AAS）病人,其中Stanford B型AD 98例采用腔内支架人造血管植入术,必要时辅以颈-颈动脉旁路术或颈-颈-锁骨下动脉旁路术,IMH 19例,药物治疗,PAU 8例,腔内支架人造血管植入治疗,必要时辅以股－股动脉旁路术,1例因经济原因放弃腔内治疗。随访3个月至3年,随访率78％。结果 1例IMH病人在治疗过程中出现急性Stanford A型AD抢救无效死亡,1例Stanford B型AD病人腔内支架人造血管植入术后半年死于急性Stanford A型AD,1例Stanford B型AD病人腔内支架人造血管植入术后双下肢缺血性神经损伤未能完全恢复。其余病人无不良事件发生。结论 腔内支架人造血管植入术是治疗Stanford B型AD和PAU的安全、有效的手段,辅以必要的动脉旁路手术可以扩大其适应证;药物治疗是控制IMH的有效方法,有良好的近、中期疗效。     

急诊腔内修复术治疗合并灌注不良综合征的急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层

目的：探讨急诊行腔内修复术治疗合并灌注不良综合征的急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层的疗效及安全性。 方法：2006年1月—2013年12月,共收治23例合并灌注不良综合征的急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层患者,患者治疗前均经全主动脉CT血管造影确诊。其中男16例,女7例,年龄42~68岁;合并肾动脉灌注不良8例（单侧6例）,肠系膜上动脉灌注不良9例,单侧下肢动脉灌注不良5例,脊髓灌注不良1例;17例患者急诊行腔内修复术及相关辅助治疗,6例患者拒绝手术,予保守治疗。 结果：6例保守治疗患者均在2周内死亡。17例接受急诊手术患者均予覆膜支架封堵主动脉第一破口,其中13例封堵第一破口后,分支动脉灌注不良改善;1例第一破口位于降主动脉中段,先植入裸支架,扩张主动脉真腔后,再植入覆膜支架封堵第一破口;3例封堵第一破口后,尚需再植入单侧肾动脉或肠系膜上动脉裸支架。术后30 d无死亡病例。17例均随访3~36个月,1例术后半年死于心肌梗死,余均存活且未出现支架相关并发症。 结论：对于合并器官灌注不良的急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层患者,急诊行腔内修复术,恢复脏器供血,是挽救生命的重要方法。     

急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层并灌注不良的腔内治疗

目的 总结急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层并内脏或下肢动脉灌注不良的腔内治疗经验.方法 回顾性分析2001年7月至2012年12月收治的23例急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层并内脏或下肢动脉灌注不良患者的临床资料,其中男20例,女3例,年龄42～ 75岁,平均(52±9)岁.5例(21.7％)肾动脉缺血,9例(39.1％)肠系膜上动脉缺血,3例(13％)腹腔干缺血,6例(20.1％)下肢缺血(左下肢坏死1例).其中2例同时有肾动脉及下肢动脉缺血.分别采用不同的腔内技术治疗.结果 23例支架人工血管成功覆盖近端第一破口.11例(47.8％)其他分支动脉植入了支架.23例患者灌注不良得到改善,手术技术成功率100％.1例合并右髂动脉闭塞致下肢缺血者,支架人工血管覆盖第一破口并右髂动脉内植入支架后治愈.1例合并下肢动脉缺血坏死者支架人工血管植入术后一期行大腿中上段截肢术.23例患者均获随访,随访6 ～72个月,平均(21±11)个月,无移植物移位及器官缺血.本组无截瘫病例.结论 腔内支架人工血管植入覆盖主动脉夹层第1破口是首选的治疗手段.部分患者尚需结合分支动脉支架植入等方法来进一步治疗.     

急性期保守治疗的Stanford B型主动脉夹层患者死亡原因分析

目的 分析保守治疗的急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层患者急性期(发病14 d内)的死亡相关因素,指导急诊手术病例的选择.方法 回顾分析2007年1月至2009年5月进行保守治疗的42例急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层患者,其中男性33例,女性9例,平均年龄(50±12)岁.治疗方法包括止痛、控制性降压及抑制心肌收缩等对症治疗.其中急性期存活28例,死亡14例,分别应用单因素和多因素Logistic回归分析寻找其急性期死亡的相关因素.结果 在单因素Logistic回归分析中,分支血管缺血(P=0.018)和主动脉最大径(P=0.002)是急性期B型夹层的死亡相关因素;多因素Logistic回归分析亦证实分支血管缺血(P=0.041)和主动脉最大径(P=0.005)为死亡的相关因素.当主动脉最大径超过40 mm时死亡风险明显增高(P=0.000).结论 存在主动脉分支血管缺血或主动脉最大径>40 mm的急性Stanford B型主动脉夹层患者应考虑急诊手术或腔内治疗.     

累及肠系膜上动脉的Stanford B型夹层主动脉瘤的治疗

目的探讨Stanford B型主动脉夹层动脉瘤(aortic dissection aneurysm,ADA)引起肠道缺血(intestinal ischemia)的治疗。方法回顾分析2005年1月至2006年2月8例累及肠系膜上动脉(superior mesenteric artery,SMA)的Stanford B型急慢性ADA的治疗方法。其中有5例SMA完全开口于假腔,为了预防腔内修复(endovascular repair,EVR)术后出现肠道缺血,先行髂动脉-SMA人工血管旁路术,再行腔内修复降主动脉夹层动脉瘤。1例ADA急性期出现肠坏死行小肠部分切除,SMA内膜切除及固定。1例EVR术后肠缺血缓解。1例EVR术后7个月出现SMA夹层,保守治疗。结果所有5例行内脏动脉重建者均获得成功,无围手术期死亡。所有8例降主动脉夹层动脉瘤EVR均获得成功,1例出现Ⅱ型内瘘,无肠道缺血症状出现。术后随访平均7.5(1～14)个月,CTA示SMA通过移植血管显影通畅;人工血管内支架无移位、断裂;出现Ⅱ型内瘘患者术后3个月随访CTA内瘘消失。结论内脏动脉受累的Stanford B型急慢性ADA,术前正确的判断及合理的手术方式往往可以挽救患者的生命,减少主动脉破裂的危险以及内脏缺血致死的可能。     

Stanford B型主动脉夹层发病24h内腔内修复术30例

目的 探讨Stanford B型主动脉夹层(aortic dissection,AD)发病24h内腔内修复术的疗效.方法 回顾性分析2007年6月至2008年1O月急诊行腔内修复Stanford B型主动脉夹层30例临床资料.本组腔内修复术均在胸痛症状出现后2.4h内完成;采用全身麻醉,在x线透视下将覆膜支架经股动脉放置在夹层第l裂口位置;其中1例第1裂口位于腹腔干对侧缘,运用开窗支架技术实施腔内修复术.术后1周、1、3、6、12个月行螺旋CT检查,观察手术疗效以及有无内漏、支架移位和内脏血供等.结果 30例支架均成功释放,无支架移位,无中转开胸手术,即刻造影I型内漏4例(13.4%),近端球囊扩张后3例消失,1例小于10%;所有患者真腔供血均得到改善.术后30 d死亡1例(3.3%),可能缘于术后夹层破裂;30例术后随访1-19个月,平均(12 4-8)个月,术后6个月发现1例(3.3%)I型内漏;无其他新发内漏出现.随访期间死亡1例(3.3%),该患者术后2月出现急性肝功能衰竭,死因不明.结论 24 h内腔内修复Stanford B型主动脉夹层可明显降低急性起病期患者死亡率,但远期效果还有待进一步观察.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.