Pre-operative respiratory optimisation: an expert review

Postoperative pulmonary complications are common and cause increased mortality and hospital stay. Smoking and respiratory diseases including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and obstructive sleep apnoea are associated with developing postoperative pulmonary complications. Independent risk factors for such complications also include low pre-operative oxygen saturation, or a recent respiratory infection. Postponing surgery in patients who have respiratory infections or inadequately treated respiratory disease, until these can be fully treated, should, therefore, reduce postoperative pulmonary complications. There is evidence from several studies that pre-operative smoking cessation reduces such complications, with no agreed duration at which the benefits become significant; the longer the abstinence, the greater the benefit. Intensive smoking cessation programmes are more effective, and there are long-term benefits, as many patients become permanent non-smokers following their surgery. Supervised exercise programmes normally last 6–8 weeks, and although they reduce overall complications, the evidence of benefit for postoperative pulmonary complications is mixed. High-intensity interval training can improve fitness in just 2 weeks, and so may be more useful for surgical patients. Specific respiratory pre-operative interventions, such as deep breathing exercises and incentive spirometry, can help when used as components of a package of respiratory care. Pre-operative inspiratory muscle training programmes that involve inspiration against a predetermined respiratory load may also reduce some postoperative pulmonary complications. Pre-operative exercise programmes are recommended for patients having major surgery, or in those where pre-operative testing has shown low levels of cardiorespiratory fitness; interval training or respiratory interventions are more feasible as these reduce complications after a shorter pre-operative intervention.     

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??To place importance on prevention and treatment of perioperative respiratory complications WU Guo-hao, ZHUANG Qiu-lin. Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital , Fudan University ,Shanghai200032, China
Corresponding author ??WU Guo-hao, E-mail??prowugh@yahoo.com.cn
Abstract Postoperative respiratory complications play a significant role in the risk for surgery. The most important and morbid postoperative respiratory complications are atelectasis, pneumonia, respiratory failure and exacerbation of underlying chronic lung disease. Risk factors for postoperative respiratory complications include patient-related risk factors such as chronic lung disease??age??cigarette use??congestive heart failure as well as procedure-related risk factors (e.g. surgical site, duration of surgery, anesthetic technique and emergency surgery). Careful history taking and a thorough physical examination may be the most sensitive ways to identify at risk patients. Pulmonary function tests, X-rays and other related tests also can assess risk of perioperative respiratory complications. Strategies to reduce the risk of perioperative respiratory complications include smoking cessation, pulmonary function training, optimizing nutritional status and intraoperative strategies. Postoperative care should include lung expansion techniques, supplemental oxygen therapy and adequate pain control.     

术后无创呼吸支持的研究进展

术后肺部并发症（PPCs）是指术后发生的呼吸系统并发症,主要包括呼吸道感染、呼吸衰竭、胸腔积液、肺不张、气胸、支气管痉挛及吸入性肺炎等。PPCs的发生与患者自身、手术和麻醉等因素密切相关,影响患者围术期康复及预后。无创呼吸支持（NRS）包括常规氧气疗法（COT）、无创正压通气（NPPV）、经鼻高流量（HFNC）氧疗等,通过改善肺部呼吸力学和满足氧气需求减少肺部并发症的发生。目前NRS已在重症监护病房（ICU）广泛应用,但其术后应用尚无共识。本文就近年来术后NRS应用的研究进展进行综述,包括NRS的模式、NRS在不同类型手术的应用和NRS在不同类型患者的应用等内容,为促进术后康复提供参考。     

Perioperative management of the patient with respiratory disease

Cardiorespiratory disease is the commonest cause of perioperative morbidity and mortality in the western world. Each year in the UK, around 25,000 to 30,000 patients die within 30 days of surgery. The most important pulmonary complications are exacerbation of existing respiratory disease, pneumonia and respiratory failure. The key to reducing problems in this group of patients is identification of those individuals most at risk and optimization of medical management. A perioperative care plan can then be instituted for each individual patient in order to gain maximum benefit from available therapeutic interventions. While complications can never be totally prevented, a worsening of vital signs generally precedes impending critical illness. Prompt recognition of any physiological deterioration and early intervention are the key to avoiding a poor outcome in such circumstances. Early warning scoring (EWS) systems have been implemented in many postoperative care areas to draw attention to any deterioration in vital signs at an early stage. This article focuses on the perioperative management of patients with respiratory disease.     

胃癌术后肺部感染发生因素及围手术期干预措施

胃癌是常见的消化系统恶性肿瘤,目前外科手术是胃癌得到根治性治疗的主要手段。而肺部感染是胃癌术后常见的并发症,但目前肺部感染尚无明确统一的定义,目前研究显示,胃癌术后肺部感染发生率为1.8%~18.1%。术后肺部感染的发生会延长患者住院时间,增加住院费用,甚至发展成为呼吸衰竭,进而导致患者术后早期死亡。目前,研究发现影响...     

Cardiovascular and respiratory complications after major head and neck surgery

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to gain insight into the incidence rates for, distribution of, and risk factors of postoperative cardiovascular and respiratory complications in major head and neck surgery. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of 469 patients who had undergone primary major head and neck surgery. Outcome measures were incidence rates, risk factors, and distribution over time for postoperative cardiovascular and respiratory complications. A multivariate analysis was performed. RESULTS: The incidence rates for cardiovascular and respiratory complications were 57 of 469 (12%) and 50 of 469 (11%), respectively. The incidence rate for heart failure exceeded that for pneumonia. The peak incidence for cardiovascular complications was on the first postoperative day; for respiratory complications, on the second postoperative day. Risk factors for cardiovascular complications were age, pulmonary disease, alcohol abuse, and tumor location; risk factors for respiratory complications were pulmonary disease, previous myocardial infarction, and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) grade. CONCLUSION: In this study, the incidence rates for cardiovascular and respiratory complications were very similar. The first postoperative day was crucial with regard to cardiovascular complications. Age and chronic pulmonary diseases were the common risk factors for cardiovascular and respiratory complications.     

Evaluation and management of patients with pulmonary disease before thoracic and cardiovascular surgery

The risks of respiratory complications after thoracic and cardiovascular surgeries are particularly high for patients with chronic pulmonary disease and are associated with prolonged hospital stays and increased mortality. The primary goals of preoperative management are to identify risk factors and institute interventions likely to reduce subsequent postoperative pulmonary complications. Smoking, symptomatic obstructive lung disease, respiratory infection, obesity, and malnutrition are all potentially modifiable risk factors. Chest physiotherapy is indicated in all patients regardless of risk factor profile. Providing a thoughtfully designed, multifaceted course of preoperative care can result in a clinically significant reduction in postoperative morbidity and mortality, particularly if instituted well in advance of surgery.     

Pulmonary assessment for general thoracic surgery

Preoperative pulmonary assessment is an essential step in the selection and the management of patients who are candidates for thoracic procedures. Despite advances in anesthesia, including the use of epidural analgesics, and advances in surgical techniques and perioperative care, postoperative pulmonary complications remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in thoracic surgery. No single parameter is predictive of postoperative complications or mortality in patients who undergo a thoracic procedure. Therefore, patients should not be denied for surgical resection based on any single abnormal test or parameter. A comprehensive assessment of the functional status, exercise tolerance, and pulmonary function should be performed before surgery to select the patients appropriately, predict the risk of postoperative complications, and achieve better outcomes.     

Anaesthetic practice and postoperative pulmonary complications

The aim of this study was to identify risk factors associated with postoperative pulmonary complications. The influence of the anaesthetic technique was evaluated (i.e. general contra regional anaesthesia and long contra intermediately acting muscle relaxants (pancuronium and atracurium)) taking into account the patient's age, the presence or absence of chronic obstructive lung disease (preoperative risk factors), the type of surgery and the duration of anaesthesia (perioperative risk factors). Seven thousand and twenty-nine patients undergoing abdominal, urological, gynaecological or orthopaedic surgery were included in the study. A total of 290 patients (4.1%) suffered from one or more postoperative pulmonary complications. Six thousand and sixty-two patients received general anaesthesia and 4.5% of these had postoperative pulmonary complications. Of the patients admitted to major surgery receiving pancuronium, 12.7% (135/1062) developed postoperative pulmonary complications, compared to only 5.1% (23/449) receiving atracurium (P < 0.05). When stratified for type of surgery and duration of anaesthesia, conventional statistics showed no difference between pancuronium and atracurium as regard postoperative pulmonary complications. However, a logistic regression analysis indicated that long-lasting procedures involving pancuronium entailed a higher risk of postoperative pulmonary complications than did other procedures. In patients having regional anaesthesia, only 1.9% (18/967) developed postoperative pulmonary complications (P < 0.05 compared to general anaesthesia). However, when stratified for type of surgery there was a significantly higher incidence of postoperative pulmonary complications only in patients undergoing major orthopaedic surgery under general anaesthesia, 11.5% compared to 3.6% in patients given a regional anaesthesia.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Perioperative management of the patient with respiratory disease

Respiratory complications are common, representing 10% of all postoperative complications and accounting for significant morbidity, mortality and financial cost. Patients with respiratory disease can be identified preoperatively from a clinical history. Preoperative evaluation should focus on diagnosis and medical optimization of the patient's physical status. Risk stratification of patients allows counselling and consent, planning of perioperative care including anaesthetic management and possible modification of surgical procedure to reduce risk. The aim of the perioperative period is successful surgery without postoperative respiratory complications. Patients should be monitored and complications actively sought and promptly treated to reduce their impact and increase the likelihood of a good outcome. Postoperative level 2 or 3 care allows for the more rapid detection of physiological disturbance and prompt treatment.     

Tobacco control for anesthesiologists

Anesthesiologists daily witness the consequences of tobacco use, the most common preventable cause of death. Smoking-related diseases such as atherosclerosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease increase anesthetic risk, and even smokers without overt disease are at increased risk for morbidity such as pulmonary and wound-related complications. Evidence suggests that stopping smoking will reduce the frequency of these complications. Nicotine and the other constituents of cigarette smoke, such as carbon monoxide, have important physiologic effects that may affect perioperative management. In addition, it is now apparent that the scheduling of elective surgery represents an excellent opportunity for smokers to quit in the long term. This review serves as an introduction to tobacco control for anesthesiologists, first examining issues of importance to perioperative management. It then discusses how anesthesiologists and other perioperative physicians can help address tobacco use, both at an individual level with their patients, and by contributing to the implementation of effective public health strategies in their countries. Anesthesiologists can play a key role in helping their patients quit smoking. Effective tobacco control measures applied to surgical patients will not only improve immediate perioperative outcomes but also long-term health.     

Strategies in the high-risk cardiac patient undergoing non-cardiac surgery

The risk of perioperative myocardial infarction or cardiac death in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery may be estimated by clinical risk factor analysis and by myocardial stress testing. While stress testing modalities accurately delineate reversible myocardial ischaemia, their positive predictive value is low, and it is not clear whether their implementation improves outcome when compared to risk stratification alone. Similarly, it remains to be shown that preoperative coronary revascularization is an effective strategy in reducing perioperative risk. Recent reports indicate that surgery undertaken in the first weeks after percutaneous coronary interventions may be associated with a significantly increased rate of major complications. Administration of β-blockers and α₂-adrenergic agonists to high-risk patients reduces surgical morbidity and mortality, and the benefits observed with β-blockers may extend long after the operative period. In high-risk patients undergoing major surgery, pulmonary artery catheter-guided haemodynamic optimization has not been associated with better outcomes, whereas use of regional anesthetic techniques decreases the incidence of postoperative pulmonary, but not cardiac, complications.     

Non-invasive ventilation after surgery

After surgery, hypoxemia and/or acute respiratory failure (ARF) mainly develop following abdominal and/or thoracic surgery. Anesthesia, postoperative pain and surgery will induce respiratory modifications: hypoxemia, pulmonary volumes decrease and atelectasis associated to a restrictif syndrome and a diaphragm dysfunction. Maintenance of adequate oxygenation in the postoperative period is of major importance, especially when pulmonary complications such as ARF occur. Although invasive endotracheal mechanical ventilation has remained the cornerstone of ventilatory strategy for many years for severe acute respiratory failure, several studies have shown that mortality associated with pulmonary disease is largely related to complications of postoperative reintubation and mechanical ventilation. Therefore, major objectives for anesthesiologists and surgeons are first to prevent the occurrence of postoperative complications and second if ARF occurs is to ensure oxygen administration and carbon dioxide CO₂ removal while avoiding intubation. Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) does not require endotracheal tube or tracheotomy and its use is well established to prevent ARF occurrence (prophylactic treatment) or to treat ARF to avoid reintubation (curative treatment). Studies shows that patient-related risk factors, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), age older than 60 years, American Society of Anesthesiologists ASA class of II or higher, obesity, functional dependence, and congestive heart failure, increase the risk for postoperative pulmonary complications. Rationale for postoperative NIV use is the same as the post-extubation NIV use plus the specificities due to the respiratory modifications induced by the surgery and anesthesia. Postoperative NIV improves gas exchange, decreases work of breathing and reduces atelectasis. The aims of this article are (1) to review the main respiratory modifications induced by surgery and anesthesia which justify postoperative NIV use (2) to offer some recommendations to apply safely postoperative NIV and (3) to present the main results obtained with preventive and curative NIV in a surgical context.     

Perioperative Cardiorespiratory Complications in Adults with Mediastinal Mass: Incidence and Risk Factors

Background: Patients with a mediastinal mass are at risk for cardiorespiratory complications in the perioperative period. The authors' objectives were to evaluate the incidence of life-threatening intraoperative cardiorespiratory and postoperative respiratory complications in adult patients and to study the usefulness of clinical signs and symptoms, radiologic evaluation, and pulmonary function tests in the determination of the perioperative risk.

Methods: The authors reviewed the investigation and treatment of adult patients presenting with anterior or middle mediastinal masses for surgery under anesthesia between January 1994 and July 2000.

Results: Ninety-eight patients underwent 105 anesthetic cases. The incidences of intraoperative cardiorespiratory and postoperative respiratory complications were 4 in 105 and 11 in 105, respectively. No collapse of the airways occurred during anesthesia. However, a high incidence of early postoperative life-threatening respiratory complications was observed (7 in 105). In a multivariate logistic regression analysis model, perioperative complications were predicted by the occurrence of cardiorespiratory signs and symptoms at the initial presentation (odds ratio [OR], 6.2) and the presence of combined obstructive and restrictive patterns (mixed pulmonary syndrome) on pulmonary function tests (OR, 3.9). Intraoperative complications were associated with pericardial effusion on computed tomography scan (OR, 19.8). Postoperative respiratory complications were related to tracheal compression of more than 50% on preoperative computed tomography scan evaluation (OR, 7.4) and mixed pulmonary syndrome on pulmonary function tests (OR, 15.1).     

Perioperative cardiorespiratory complications in adults with mediastinal mass: incidence and risk factors

BACKGROUND: Patients with a mediastinal mass are at risk for cardiorespiratory complications in the perioperative period. The authors' objectives were to evaluate the incidence of life-threatening intraoperative cardiorespiratory and postoperative respiratory complications in adult patients and to study the usefulness of clinical signs and symptoms, radiologic evaluation, and pulmonary function tests in the determination of the perioperative risk. METHODS: The authors reviewed the investigation and treatment of adult patients presenting with anterior or middle mediastinal masses for surgery under anesthesia between January 1994 and July 2000. RESULTS: Ninety-eight patients underwent 105 anesthetic cases. The incidences of intraoperative cardiorespiratory and postoperative respiratory complications were 4 in 105 and 11 in 105, respectively. No collapse of the airways occurred during anesthesia. However, a high incidence of early postoperative life-threatening respiratory complications was observed (7 in 105). In a multivariate logistic regression analysis model, perioperative complications were predicted by the occurrence of cardiorespiratory signs and symptoms at the initial presentation (odds ratio [OR], 6.2) and the presence of combined obstructive and restrictive patterns (mixed pulmonary syndrome) on pulmonary function tests (OR, 3.9). Intraoperative complications were associated with pericardial effusion on computed tomography scan (OR, 19.8). Postoperative respiratory complications were related to tracheal compression of more than 50% on preoperative computed tomography scan evaluation (OR, 7.4) and mixed pulmonary syndrome on pulmonary function tests (OR, 15.1). CONCLUSION: Obstruction of the airway in an adult with a mediastinal mass is a rare event in the intraoperative period. Nevertheless, caution should be observed for the occurrence of early postoperative life-threatening respiratory complications. Patient at high risk of perioperative complications can be identified by the occurrence of cardiopulmonary signs and symptoms at presentation, combined obstructive and restrictive pattern on pulmonary function tests, and computed tomography scan findings (tracheal compression > 50%, pericardial effusion, or both).     

Postoperative mortality and complications

Recent publications not only underline the risks of age and disease during surgery but also help us quantify the risks with greater precision. Importantly, patient factors often have a stronger association with postoperative mortality than surgical factors. Important factors preoperatively are: age, American Society of Anaesthesiologist (ASA) physical status, emergency surgery, and plasma albumin concentration. There is emerging work on quantifying frailty as a further risk factor for perioperative complication and mortality as well as need for higher level of care after discharge from hospital. Important postoperative complications include sepsis and kidney injury. Preventing, detecting and managing complications and mortality is the greatest challenge facing those caring for surgical patients, including anaesthetists. Evidence for the long term effects of perioperative complications adds further importance to minimizing perioperative complications. Newer approaches in patient care, particularly co-management during the postoperative phase by different specialities are emerging. Managing high-risk patients should also be enhanced with greater surveillance and more rapid and appropriate response; ensuring we do not fail to rescue our patients.     

Perioperative management of the patient with respiratory disease

Respiratory complications are common, representing 10% of all post-operative complications, accounting for significant morbidity, mortality and financial cost. Patients with respiratory disease can be identified preoperatively from a clinical history. Preoperative evaluation should focus on diagnosis and medical optimization of the patient's physical status. Risk stratification of patients allows counselling and consent of patients, planning of perioperative care including anaesthetic management and possible modification of surgical procedure to reduce risk. The aim of the perioperative period is successful surgery without postoperative respiratory complications. Patients should be monitored and complications actively sought and promptly treated to reduce their impact and increase the likelihood of a good outcome. Postoperative level 2 or 3 care allows for the more rapid detection of physiological disturbance and prompt treatment.     

Thoracic surgery for patients with bronchial asthma

Thoracic surgery poses a risk for complications in the respiratory system. In particular, for patients with bronchial asthma, we need to care for perioperative complications because it is well known that these patients frequently have respiratory complications after surgery, and they may have bronchial spasms during surgery. If we can get good control of their bronchial asthma, we can usually perform surgery for these patients without limitations. For safe postoperative care, it is desirable that these patients have stable asthma conditions that are well-controlled before surgery, as thoracic surgery requires intrabronchial intubation for anesthesia and sometimes bronchial resection. These stimulations to the bronchus do not provide for good conditions because of the risk of bronchial spasm. Therefore, we should use the same agents that are used to control bronchial asthma if it is already well controlled. If it is not, we have to administer a β? stimulator, aminophylline, or steroidal agents for good control. Isoflurane or sevoflurane are effective for the safe control of anesthesia during surgery, and we should use a β? stimulator, with or without inhalation, or steroidal agents after surgery. It is important to understand that we can perform thoracic surgery for asthma patients if we can provide perioperative control of bronchial asthma, although these patients still have severe risks.     

Preoperative risk assessment in vascular surgery patients

The patient scheduled for peripheral vascular surgery is an increased anaesthetic challenge, mainly because of coexisting generalized cardiovascular atherosclerotic involvement leading to a high risk of perioperative cardiac complications. In clinical practice it is of importance preoperatively to predict, as accurately as possible, the potential risk of complications so that proper risk-reducing measures can be taken. Relevant clinical data, which have been included by Goldman and Detsky in multifactorial cardiac risk indices, are of potential value for differentiating between patients at low, intermediate, or high risk of perioperative cardiac morbidity and mortality. Patients with low risk scores can be accepted for surgery without further testing, thereby allowing more extensive cardiac testing, such as ambulatory ECG monitoring, exercise stress testing, echocardiography, dipyridamole thallium imaging, or coronary angiography, to be reserved for patients with higher risk scores or overt cardiac problems. The risk stratification is of importance not only for decisions on preoperative prophylactic therapeutic measures (e.g. optimization of medical therapies, coronary artery revascularization), but also for decisions on intraoperative anaesthetic management and postoperative care.     

一期后路全脊椎切除治疗重度脊柱畸形围手术期并发症及其相关危险因素分析

目的 探讨一期后路全脊椎切除术治疗重度脊柱畸形围手术期并发症的发生情况及其相关危险因素.方法 2004年9月至2012年7月接受一期后路全脊椎切除术治疗的重度脊柱侧后凸患者39例,男15例,女24例;年龄3～53岁,平均16.9岁.侧后凸畸形24例,平均冠状面主弯Cobb角85.1°,平均后凸Cobb角92.9°;侧凸畸形7例,平均冠状面主弯Cobb角81.1°;后凸畸形8例,平均后凸Cobb角94.4°.术前合并神经功能障碍者11例.回顾性分析围手术期并发症的发生情况及其相关危险因素.结果 围手术期共13例患者出现了15例次与手术相关的并发症.神经系统并发症6例次(15.4％).青少年神经系统并发症发生率明显低于成人.术前已经伴有及不伴有神经损害表现患者的神经并发症发生率分别为36.4％和7.1％.出现神经系统并发症的患者术前均伴有后凸畸形,且后凸畸形严重者(后凸Cobb角≥90°)神经系统并发症发生率明显增高.术后呼吸支持时间延长4例次(10.3％).壁层胸膜撕裂3例次(7.7％),脑脊液漏1例(2.6％),肺部感染1例次(2.6％).结论 一期后路全脊椎切除术是治疗重度脊柱畸形的有效方法,但围手术期并发症尤其是神经系统并发症发生率高.神经系统并发症的发生与术前神经功能、患者年龄、后凸Cobb角大小相关.