Smoking Topography in a Nonlaboratory Environment

The relationships between the number of cigarettes smoked/day and the number of puffs/cigarette, puff duration, and total puff time/cigarette were studied. Data were collected on 12 regular smokers for all cigarettes smoked over a 3-day period in a nonlaboratory environment. Between-subject variability was substantial on each of the topographical measures. Neither the number of cigarettes smoked per day nor the classification of Heavy (> 25 cigarettes/day) vs Moderate (< 25 cigarettes/day) smoking levels was related to the intensity with which cigarettes were smoked. Within-subject consistency on the topography measures indicates that smokers may have relatively unique smoking patterns.

Most studies of smoking in the natural environment employ number of cigarettes/day as their estimate of smoke exposure. However, total smoke exposure is determined by an interaction of various topographical features, including frequency (number of cigarettes/day, number of puffs/cigarette), durational (puff duration, interpuff interval, intercigarette interval), and volumetric (puff volume, inhalation volume) components. Employing cigarettes/day to estimate smoke exposure assumes a consistent relationship between cigarettes/day and other topographical features which contribute to total smoke exposure, but it is not clear that such a relationship exists. Laboratory studies of smoking behavior have found that cigarette frequency may vary independently of these other topographic components of smoking, lichtenstein and Antonuccio (1981) examined smoking topography in 24 male smokers while they smoked a cigarette during two 45-minute sessions. They found that cigarette rate was significantly related to intercigarette interval, but not to puff frequency, puff duration, cigarette duration, and amount of tobacco burned.

Results found in laboratory settings, however, have been found not to necessarily generalize to nonlaboratory environments. For example, OssipKlein, Martin, Lomax, Prue, and Davis (1983) examined six subjects smoking adlib in three settings: natural, clinical, and laboratory. They found that cigarette durations were shorter and that subjects took significantly longer and more puffs in a clinical or laboratory setting compared to a naturalistic setting. Thus, examination of the relationship between topographical features in naturalistic smoking would appear to require direct study outside the laboratory.

The present study is to our knowledge the first to examine topographical features of smoking and the relationship between number of cigarettes smoked/ day and other measures of smoking topography while the subject smoked ad-lib in a nonlaboratory environment. This information would potentially be important in examining the extent of individual differences in smoking topography, in assessing the extent to which cigarettes/day is related to other aspects of smoking behavior, and in determining whether categorizing smokers into smoking groups (e.g., moderate and heavy) on the basis of number of cigarettes/day accurately reflects the amount of total smoke exposure/day.     

Smoking topography and carbon monoxide levels in smokers

Factors which effect the expired air carbon monoxide (CO) levels of smokers were examined in matched subject pairs who smoked an equal number of daytime cigarettes but had different CO levels (mean difference = 15.4 ppm). Measures of puff number, duration, and spacing, as well as the amount of CO increase per cigarette (CO boost), were assessed while subjects smoked a single cigarette in daily laboratory sessions. Subjects with relatively high CO levels had larger increases in CO after smoking a single cigarette than did individuals with low CO levels (p. less than .005) but did not differ on any other smoking topography measure. These data suggest that simple topography measures of puff number and duration may not contribute to between subject differences in tobacco smoke exposure, and that greater attention should be given to more refined measures such as puff volume and depth of inhalation. These data also suggest that the measurement of CO boost per cigarette may provide useful information regarding tobacco smoke intake.     

Effects of single doses of alcohol and caffeine on cigarette smoke puffing behavior

Puffing behavior (number of puffs, puff duration, puff volume, peak pressure, peak flow, peak latency, and puff interval) and pre- to postsmoking delta tidal CO difference were measured in female subjects in order to assess separate and combined effects of ethanol and caffeine. The subjects smoked two cigarettes of their habitual brand in a preliminary familiarizing session and in each of the subsequent four test sessions. The treatments administered after smoking the first cigarette in the test sessions were: alcohol placebo and caffeine placebo; alcohol placebo and caffeine; alcohol and caffeine placebo; alcohol and caffeine. Test-retest reliability across the first cigarette of each session (which was not smoked under the influence of the treatments) was remarkably high for all the puffing parameters. Ethanol in the dose of 0.7 g/kg intensified cigarette smoking of the second cigarette by increasing delta tidal CO, average puff volume, and total puff volume per cigarette, whereas 0.5 g/kg ethanol and 5 mg/kg caffeine given alone or combined with ethanol failed to influence puffing behavior consistently.     

Smoking reduction: A comparison of the effectiveness of rapid smoking and increasing delay training

The relative effectiveness of two treatment procedures in facilitating self-control of smoking behavior was compared. One week before treatment, subjects self-monitored number of cigarettes smoked. On the days of treatment, subjects were given pre- and postsession self-control tests; subjects were given a lit cigarette and were asked to withstand the temptation of taking a puff during an imposed delay period. After five days of two-hour sessions in which subjects' smoking was paced with either increasing delays or rapid smoking, subjects again were asked to self-monitor their smoking for one week. Increasing delay induced better self-control scores than did rapid smoking. Both groups were not significantly different in number of cigarettes smoked.     

Smoking reduction: A comparison of the effectiveness of rapid smoking and increasing delay training

The relative effectiveness of two treatment procedures in facilitating self-control of smoking behavior was compared. One week before treatment, subjects self-monitored number of cigarettes smoked. On the days of treatment, subjects were given pre- and postsession self-control tests; subjects were given a lit cigarette and were asked to withstand the temptation of taking a puff during an imposed delay period. After five days of two-hour sessions in which subjects' smoking was paced with either increasing delays or rapid smoking, subjects again were asked to self-monitor their smoking for one week. Increasing delay induced better self-control scores than did rapid smoking. Both groups were not significantly different in number of cigarettes smoked.     

Smoke yield of cigarettes and puffing behavior in men and women

Puffing behavior (number of puffs, puff interval, puff duration, peak pressure, latency to peak pressure, average and total puff volume) was measured in 67 dependent male and 43 dependent female smokers when they smoked two cigarettes of their habitual brand under laboratory conditions. Test-retest reliability for the two cigarettes was high, and factor analysis showed that puff shape, puff volume, and puff frequency accounted for about 50% of variation obtained with the different puffing variables. Expiratory tidal CO levels increased with the number of cigarettes smoked before the tests and with the intensity of the smoking habit, but pre- to postsmoking tidal CO differences were similar for smokers of all types of cigarettes (0.1–1.7 mg standard machine smoking nicotine yield). Volume compensation for differences of smoke yield of the cigarettes was generally more pronouced in women than in men and, additionally, it was more pronounced for cigarettes with standard smoke nicotine yield below 0.9 mg than for cigarettes with standard smoke nicotine yield above 0.9 mg for both sexes. Only for women, partial correlation procedures suggested that nicotine might be more important in determining puffing behavior than CO and condensate yield, but there were also no women smoking the strongest cigarettes (1.3–1.7 mg nicotine yield). For both sexes, no compensation by adjusting the number of cigarettes smoked daily was obtained. Personality ratings, pulmonary functions, and cardiovascular functions were not, or only inconsistently, correlated with puffing behavior or type of cigarette.     

Compensation and effective smoking by different nicotine dependent smokers

The role of nicotine in smoking behavior was studied in a compensation experiment. Fourteen smokers were recruited and their dependence on nicotine was measured by a Tolerance Questionnaire. Each subject smoked four cigarettes, two with high nicotine content and two with low. Recordings were made of the number of puffs, interpuff intervals and puff duration by means of a thermistor inserted into a wooden cigarette holder. A composite “Smoking Score” was calculated for each cigarette smoked. Data analysis showed that the more dependent subjects smoked more effectively than less dependent subjects and that weaker cigarettes were smoked more effectively than stronger cigarettes. Compensatory smoking and nicotine dependence covaried. The results were discussed in light of recent efforts to offer the public weaker cigarettes.     

Determinants of puff duration in cigarette smokers: II

Studies were conducted to provide information about variables that might account for decreases in puff duration that consistently occur as a whole cigarette is smoked. In two experiments, cigarette smoking was investigated under conditions in which subjects smoked cigarettes which they could not see. Puff duration was shown to covary with manipulations of resistance to draw--increasing tobacco rod length or adding filters proximal or distal to the smoke stream increased puff duration. Filtration of the smoke stream did not influence puff duration when resistance to draw was controlled. Comparison of changes in smoke temperature with changes in puff duration across a whole cigarette, and manipulation of smoke temperature by use of different length cigarette holders suggested that temperature did not appreciably control puff duration. A final experiment with nonhuman stimulated puffing of constant puff volume showed that both tobacco rod length and cigarette brand affected puff duration and suggests the possibility that the physics of smoke passing through the cigarette may be fundamental determinant of changes in puff duration during human smoking.     

Puffing behavior during the smoking of a single cigarette in a naturalistic environment.

The 36 participants in this study were habitual low-yield cigarette smokers, medium-yield cigarette smokers, and switchers from medium- to low-yield cigarettes. All participants smoked both low- (0.4 mg) and medium-nicotine (0.9 mg) cigarettes during the study. Puffing indices were recorded during the first two cigarettes, after an overnight abstinence of smoking, by a portable flowmeter processor unit in a naturalistic environment. The puff volumes per cigarette and per day were significantly lower while switching to higher-yield cigarettes, mainly due to a decrease in the number of puffs and longer interpuff intervals, but also due to a decline in puff duration and flow rate. However, the downregulation by puff volume was incomplete, at most two thirds, as calculated by machine smoking yields. Within the course of smoking a single cigarette, the flow rate was quite stable, puff duration and puff volume decreased toward the end of the cigarette, and interpuff interval was longest during the middle of the cigarette. Total puff volumes per cigarette were similar in the first two cigarettes of the day after an overnight abstinence of smoking, with no significant differences in other puff parameters. Diurnal cotinine excretion revealed that nicotine titration in switching situations was very accurate among switchers and medium-yield cigarette smokers, but not among the low-yield cigarette smokers, and so called oversmoking was found with the higher-nicotine brand. Preferred cigarette type had little effect on the puffing patterns of smokers in single cigarettes.     

Smoking behavior in low-yield cigarette smokers and switchers in the natural environment.

Urinary cotinine and puffing parameters were studied in 36 smoking students. Three smoking groups, formed according to the tar content of their preferred cigarette, were compared. Eighteen students had always smoked low-yield, 10 medium-yield and 8 were switchers from medium- to low-yield cigarettes. The subjects smoked their preferred brand (the first week), low-yield cigarettes (the second week) and medium-yield cigarettes (the third week). Day urine samples were collected for cotinine analysis during the two last days of the test weeks. Puffing indices were reported on the last day of every test week with a portable microcomputer assisted analyzer with flowhead cigarette holder. Urinary cotinine concentrations were rather constant within the groups, but lower among the low-yield cigarette smokers as compared to the switchers (p less than 0.05). Also the female smokers had lower cotinine concentrations than the male smokers (p less than 0.05). The compensatory behavior seen in every smoking group while they were smoking low-yield cigarettes was based on up-regulation in single puff volume, puff duration and total smoking time when compared to values with medium-yield cigarettes. The correlation between cotinine concentration and diurnal puff volume (1/day) was poor. It is concluded that the benefit possibly gained with low-yield cigarettes is not long lasting.     

Smoke constituent exposure and stage of change in black and white women cigarette smokers

Differences in smoke constituent exposure by ethnicity and menthol preference and differences in decisional balance and habit strength by stage of change, ethnicity, and menthol preference were examined in this 2-factor study design. Ninety-five women, half of whom were Black and half of who smoked menthol cigarettes, participated in a cigarette smoking bout in the Clinical Research Center. Measures of smoking topography, plasma cotinine and nicotine, and expired carbon monoxide were obtained in addition to self-report of the pros and cons of smoking, time to first cigarette, and smoking history. Black women smoked significantly fewer cigarettes per day, but had higher cotinine levels compared to White women. Menthol smokers (n = 49) had significantly larger puff volumes, higher cotinine levels, and shorter time to first cigarette compared to nonmenthol smokers (n = 46). Precontemplators (n = 44) were significantly lower on beliefs about the negative aspects of smoking compared to contemplators and those in preparation stage. Black women, all stages combined, had higher negative beliefs about smoking than did White women. Implications for assessment of smoking patterns and intervention are discussed.     

Effects of tetrahydrocannabinol content on marijuana smoking behavior, subjective reports, and performance

This study investigated the smoking topography of marijuana and its effect on heart rate, subjective reports, and cognitive/psychomotor task performance. Male subjects (N = 12) with histories of moderate marijuana use smoked ad lib one cigarette containing 0, 1.3, or 2.7% delta 9-THC on separate days. Smoking topography measures revealed smaller puff and inhalation volumes and shorter puff duration for the high marijuana dose compared to the low dose. No other smoking behavior differed between the active doses. Heart rate was increased dose dependently over placebo levels. Active marijuana also increased subjective reports of drug effect over placebo, but not dose dependently. Significant memory impairment was observed on a forward and reverse digit span task, and performance was impaired on the digit symbol substitution task by the high, but not low, dose of marijuana. Performance on a divided attention task was not affected by marijuana. Thus, although subjects adjusted their smoking of cigarettes varying in THC content, dose-related effects of marijuana were obtained on several measures. The observed differences and individual variation in smoking topography measures suggest that precise control of smoking behavior would improve the accuracy of marijuana dose delivery.     

Lack of effect of acute dopamine precursor depletion in nicotine-dependent smokers.

RATIONALE: Nicotine increases dopamine (DA) release but its role in nicotine dependence remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To assess the role of DA in nicotine craving and self-administration using acute phenylalanine/tyrosine depletion (APTD). METHODS: Fifteen nicotine-dependent men ingested, a minimum of 3days apart, a nutritionally balanced amino acid (AA) mixture (BAL), a mixture deficient in the catecholamine precursors, phenylalanine and tyrosine, and APTD followed by the immediate DA precursor, L-DOPA. Beginning 3h after ingestion of the AA mixture, subjects smoked 4 cigarettes. Craving, mood, and other aspects of subjective state were assessed with self-report scales. Smoking puff topography was measured with a computerized flowmeter. RESULTS: APTD did not change smoking puff topography, cigarette craving, or subjective effects of smoking. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that in nicotine-dependent smokers craving for cigarettes, subjective effects of nicotine, and the self-administration of freely available cigarettes are largely unrelated to acute changes in DA neurotransmission.     

Determinants of puff duration in cigarette smokers: I

This research was undertaken to provide information about variables that might account for the decreases in puff duration that consistently occur as a whole cigarette is smoked. Cigarette smoking was investigated under conditions in which subjects smoked cigarettes which they could not see. In a series of three experiments, the length of the tobacco rod, the length of the cigarette holder, and the cigarette nicotine delivery were systematically manipulated. The results showed that puff duration correlates with the length of the tobacco rod, and that visual stimulus control, satiation, distance from the burning ember to the smoker's mouth, nicotine delivery, particulate build-up during smoking, and subjective acceptability of cigarette smoke do not contribute significantly to the control of puff duration.     

First cigarette on waking and time of day as predictors of puffing behaviour in UK adult smokers

Background

There is known inter- and intra-individual variation in how cigarettes are smoked. The aim of this study was to explore the influence of diurnal factors, particularly the first cigarette of the day, on puffing behaviour in a sample of adult smokers.

Methods

We recruited 130 adults aged 18–60 years who were smoking one of seven cigarette brands popular in the UK. Puffing behaviour was measured using a portable smoking device (CReSSmicro) through which participants smoked their cigarettes over a 24 h study period. The primary outcome was total smoke volume per cigarette (obtained by summing the puff volumes for each cigarette). Secondary outcome measures were puffing frequency, average puff volume, average puff flow, average puff duration and inter-puff interval.

Results

Total smoke volume was found to be significantly associated with the time the cigarette was smoked (P < 0.001), with cigarettes smoked between 2 and 10 a.m. being smoked less intensively than other cigarettes. After adjusting for time of cigarette, the first cigarette on waking was smoked slightly less intensively than other cigarettes and significantly so if smoked within 5 min of waking (P = 0.004).

Conclusions

This study suggests that cigarettes smoked during the night and early morning, including the first cigarette of the day, are puffed less intensively. This is a potentially important finding that merits more research given the importance of the first cigarette of the day and diurnal smoking patterns for determining dependence, cessation and relapse.     

Effects of cigarette rod length on puff volume and carbon monoxide delivery in cigarette smokers

As part of a continuing series of studies to investigate the variables controlling various topographical aspects of cigarette smoking, the present study examined the extent to which cigarette rod length influenced smoking. Cigarette smoking was examined under conditions in which subjects smoked cigarettes they could not see. Both puff volume and puff duration varied as a direct function of rod length, although they were not highly correlated. Peak flow rate was not affected by rod length. Other results suggest that visual stimulus control and satiation did not affect puff volume. Comparison of puffing whole cigarettes versus short cigarette rods suggests that puff volume, but not puff duration, may be decreased in response to increased pharmacological delivery as a result of particulate build-up during smoking of a whole cigarette. Carbon monoxide (CO) exposure was substantially greater after puffing full length cigarette rods than after short cigarette rods. Comparison of these human CO data with CO delivery from syringe-simulated puffing of full length and short cigarette rods indicates that knowledge of puff volume and duration during human smoking is insufficient for accurately predicting biological (CO) exposure.     

The relationship between chronic ethanol exposure and cigarette smoking in the laboratory and the natural environment

Few studies have examined the association between ethanol use and cigarette smoking topography. In particular, no study has objectively investigated the relationship between chronic ethanol exposure and cigarette smoking. The aim of this study was to quantify the relationship between cigarette smoking and past and current ethanol use. Male and female cigarette smokers (n=77) between the ages of 30 and 65 years were recruited and grouped as a function of their past and current ethanol use. Group 1 (n=18) included subjects who were ethanol abstinent for the 3 months prior to the study and had no history of alcohol abuse (as defined by DSM-III criteria). Group 2 (n=19) included subjects who were current regular ethanol users and had no history of alcohol abuse. Group 3 (n=20) included subjects who were ethanol abstinent and had a history of alcohol abuse. Group 4 (n=20) included current regular ethanol users with a history of alcohol abuse. A history of alcohol abuse was associated with an intensified pattern of cigarette smoking. Significant differences were observed for total daily smoke exposure, cigarette number, puff number, total puff and inhalation volume, and the nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide yields of the cigarettes smoked. Increased expired-air carbon monoxide and serum cotinine levels were also observed. Current ethanol use was not associated with an increased cigarette smoking pattern. These data suggest that alcohol abusers are at greater risk of contracting cigarette-related pathology.Supported by National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Grant No. DA 05013 and DA 02988     

Effects of puff number and puff spacing on carbon monoxide exposure from commercial brand cigarettes

Six chronic smokers of mid- to high-carbon monoxide (CO) yield cigarettes smoked ultralow- (1.6 mg CO), low- (5.9 mg CO) and high- (14.3 mg CO) yield commercial cigarettes under controlled smoking conditions in which either puff number or puff spacing was manipulated. CO exposure (pre- to postsmoking increments) was directly related to the number of puffs taken for all cigarette yields. CO exposure from the high- and low-yield cigarettes was equivalent when the number of puffs taken from the low-yield cigarettes was increased by 50% (from 8 to 12 puffs). In contrast, CO exposure from ultralow-yield cigarettes was still marginally lower than exposure from high-yield cigarettes after a 4-fold increase in puff number (8 to 32 puffs). Puff spacing did not affect biological exposure to CO. The study showed that the number of puffs taken during smoking can clearly affect biological exposure to CO, but that compensation for lowered yield using increased puffs is much more difficult when ultralow- as compared with low or "light"- yield cigarettes are smoked.     

Social interaction and smoking topography in heavy and light smokers.

The effects of social interaction on the topography of smoking behavior of heavy and light cigarette smokers was investigated. Smoking behavior was analyzed via closed circuit television monitoring during periods of informal interpersonal conversation and periods of isolation. Number of cigarettes smoked, number of puffs, cigarette duration, interpuff interval, puff duration, percent of tobacco burned, time with cigarette in mouth, and time with cigarette in hand were analyzed. Heavy and light smokers were affected differentially by the social conditions. Light smokers took more frequent and longer puffs when smoking alone with social interaction functioning to decrease the total amount of smoke inhaled. Heavy smokers were unaffected by the social conditions.     

Separate effects of cigarette smoke yield and smoke taste on smoking behavior

The purpose of this experiment was to compare independently the influence of different cigarette smoke taste categories and different machine standard smoke yield values on cigarette smoking behavior and related subjective measures. In six separate sessions 15 regular smokers were presented with a medium and a low smoke yield cigarette of each of the three taste categories, mentholated, dark (Gauloises) and blond (Muratti) tobacco. Each session, included a natural and a forced smoking procedure of one cigarette type only. Forced smoking consisted of smoking 30 puffs whereby a new half-length cigarette was presented after every third puff. During the seventh session, habitual brand cigarettes were smoked as a reference. The sessions followed in weekly intervals, and the subjects became familiar with the test cigarettes during the last 5 days preceding each test session. Although general acceptability of the cigarettes, smoking satisfaction and pleasantness of taste were clearly lower for all test cigarettes as opposed to the habitual brand reference, cigarettes, these measures remained unaffected by taste or smoke yield of the test cigarettes. Harshness of smoke was higher in the dark tobacco category and generally decreased with the lower smoke yield cigarettes. Independent effects of taste and smoke yield were obtained for total puff volume, inhalation time and CO absorption, suggesting a compensatory intensification of smoking behavior for low yield cigarettes and an independent increase of smoking intensity from mentholated to dark tobacco to blond tobacco. The results suggest therefore that factors which affect cigarette smoke taste have effects on smoking behavior which are separate from those obtained by comparing smoke yields.