Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in children--the SCIWORA syndrome

Spinal cord injury in children frequently occurs without fracture or dislocation. The clinical profiles of 55 children with spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormalities (SCIWORA) are reported in detail to illustrate features of this syndrome. No patient had vertebral fracture or dislocation on plain films and tomographies. There were ten upper cervical (C1-C4), 33 lower cervical (C5-C8), and 12 thoracic cord injuries; of these, 22 were complete or severe lesions and 33 were mild lesions. The mechanism of the neural injury probably relates to the inherent elasticity of the juvenile spine, which permits self-reducing but significant intersegmental displacements when subjected to flexion, extension, and distraction forces. The spinal cord is therefore vulnerable to injury even though the vertebral column is spared from disruption, and this vulnerability is most evident in children younger than 8 years. All but one of the 22 children with profound neurologic injuries were younger than 8 years (p less than 0.000001), whereas 24 of 33 children with mild injuries were older. Younger children were also more likely to have severe upper cervical lesions (p less than 0.05); lower cervical lesions were distributed evenly through the ages of 6 months to 16 years. Thoracic injuries most commonly resulted from distraction or crushing. Distraction invariably involved violent forces, and crush injuries were usually caused by children being run over while lying prone, when the spinal column was acutely bowed towards the spongy abdominal and thoracic cavities. Fifteen children had delayed onset of neurologic deficits; nine of these had transient warning symptoms of paresthesia, subjective paralysis, and Lhermitte's phenomenon 30 minutes to 4 days before the onset of deterioration. Eight other children suffered a second SCIWORA 3 days to 10 weeks after the initial SCIWORA. The spines in these children were presumably rendered incipiently unstable by the initial injury and thus were susceptible to additional, often more severe, neurologic trauma. The long-term neurologic outcome in children with SCIWORA is solely determined by their admission neurologic status. Realistically, the outcome can thus only be improved by: 1) ruling out occult fractures and subluxation which will require surgical fusion; 2) identifying patients likely to have delayed deterioration; and 3) preventing recurrent SCIWORA. Our experience and recommendations in these regards are discussed.     

无骨折脱位型胸脊髓损伤的诊治分析

目的 通过7例无骨折脱位型胸脊髓损伤的治疗分析,提高对该病的诊治水平。方法 本组7例按Frankel脊髓损伤分级：A级2例,B级2例,C级3例。其中5例行了MRI检查。手术治疗2例,保守治疗5例。结果 经10个月至8年2个月随访,4例完全恢复,2例部分恢复,1例无恢复。结论 MRI检查对无同骨折脱位型胸脊髓损伤的诊治具有重要意义;不完全性无骨折脱位型胸脊髓损伤的疗效满意。     

Pediatric spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormalities: report of 26 cases and review of the literature.

Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality (SCIWORA) occurs primarily in the pediatric population but is less common than other forms of spinal injury among children. Between 1972 and 1990, 159 pediatric patients were admitted to the Barrow Neurological Institute with acute traumatic spinal cord or vertebral column injuries. Of these, 26 children (16%) sustained SCIWORA. The mechanism of injury, its severity, and the prognosis for recovery were related to the patient's age. In young children, SCIWORA accounted for 32% of all spinal injuries and tended to be severe; 70% were complete injuries. In older children, SCIWORA accounted for only 12% of the spinal injuries, was rarely associated with a complete injury, and had an excellent prognosis for complete recovery of neurologic function. As with other types of spinal cord injuries, the severity of neurological injury was the most important predictor of outcome. Patients with complete neurological deficits from SCIWORA had a poor prognosis for recovery of neurological function.     

创伤性无骨折脱位型颈脊髓损伤

创伤性无骨折脱位型颈脊髓损伤是一种特殊的脊髓损伤,其X线片、CT、MRI检查并未发现骨折、脱位.过去由于对其认识不足,往往诊断为颈髓休克或颈椎一过性损伤,或误诊为脑血管病变或颅脑损伤,从而延误治疗.本院自1991年8月至1996年8月共收治了颈椎、颈髓损伤129例,其中无骨折脱位型颈髓损伤43例,占33.3%.现报告如下.     

Thoracic fracture-dislocations without spinal cord injury: a case report and literature review

Summary Severe fracture-dislocation of the thoracic spine without neurological deficit is rare. Both translational and rotational deformity of the midthoracic spine makes transection of the cord almost inevitable due to the confined dimensions of the cord and spinal canal. Even though associated fractures of posterior elements are frequently seen, they seldom result in neural sparing. The case of a 24-year-old man who sustained a severe rotational fracture-dislocation of T9/T10 with considerable anterolateral displacement is reported. Due to a fractured left pedicle and a right-sided vertical fracture through the posterior aspect of the vertebral body, alignment of the posterior elements in the spinal canal was maintained and there was no neurological deficit. The patient was operatively treated with posterior segmental instrumentation, and was completely asymptomatic at follow-up 5 years later.     

无骨折脱位型脊髓损伤的研究进展

无骨折脱位型脊髓损伤（spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality,SCIWORA）由Pang在1982年第一次提出,将其定义为在X线、CT、脊髓造影和动态X线片等放射影像学检查上未发现骨折和脱位迹象的创伤型脊髓病,并排除了穿透伤、电击、产伤和先天性脊柱畸形的情况。SCIWORA多见于儿童,且8岁以下居多。由于此类脊髓损伤的特殊性,近年来受到越来越多的关注。笔者就SCIWORA的流行病学、致伤原因、临床表现、检查、治疗及预后做一综述,以提高对于此类脊髓损伤的认识,为临床诊治提供参考。     

Pediatric spinal cord injury with radiographic abnormality: the Beijing experience

BACKGROUND CONTEXTSpinal cord injury (SCI) without radiographic abnormality (SCIWORA) is a syndrome that usually occurs in children primarily because of the unique biomechanics of the pediatric spine. We recently found that the histopathological and behavioral effects of SCI with radiographic abnormality (SCIWRA) and SCIWORA are very different from each other in animal models. Although numerous studies were conducted to understand the epidemiological and clinical characteristics of the overall pediatric SCI population and the pediatric SCIWORA population, the characteristics of the pediatric SCIWRA population and their differences from those of the SCIWORA population are poorly understood.PURPOSETo describe the epidemiology and clinical outcomes of pediatric patients with SCIWRA and their differences from those with SCIWORA.STUDY DESIGN/SETTINGRetrospective study.PATIENT SAMPLEA total of 47 pediatric SCIWRA patients.OUTCOME MEASURESEpidemiological characteristics, injury severities, functional deficits, and management and recovery outcomes.METHODSReview of all cases with SCIWRA at Beijing Children's Hospital between July 2007 and December 2019 and comparison between the present data and our previous SCIWORA data.RESULTSOf the 187 pediatric SCI patients, 47 had SCIWRA (age: 7.06 ± 3.75 years, male-to-female ratio: 3:2). Main causes of SCIWRA were fall (38%) and traffic accidents (38%). Lesions were often located at multiple levels (62%). Incubation period was 3 ± 18 hours. According to the American Spinal Injury Association impairment scale (AIS), many SCIWRA patients had incomplete impairment (AIS B, 9%; AIS C, 9%; AIS D, 32%). Specifically, many of them had abnormal upper and lower limb muscle powers (55% and 60%), upper and lower limb muscle tones (34% and 49%), sensation (38%), and knee, ankle, and abdominal reflexes (47%, 34%, and 36%). 72% of SCIWRA patients were treated with methylprednisolone, dexamethasone, or both. 81% of them showed neurological improvement before discharge. There was no association between corticosteroid therapy and neurological improvement. Moreover, functional outcomes of their upper and lower limb muscle powers were significantly associated with functional outcomes of their upper and lower limb muscle tones (p < 0.01), respectively. In comparison to the SCIWRA population, the SCIWORA population had a higher ratio of younger and female patients of sports-related thoracic injuries with long incubation period leading to lower-body deficits and complete impairment (p<0.05 or p<0.01). Despite all the differences, their neurological improvement was similar (p>0.05).CONCLUSIONSDemographic differences exist in the SCIWRA population. Corticosteroids do not appear to be effective in the different types of pediatric SCI. Limb muscle tone may be used to evaluate the functional status of limb muscle power. The epidemiological and clinical characteristics of SCIWRA and SCIWORA are very different from each other. It is important to formulate tailor-made prevention, evaluation, and management strategies for the pediatric population to optimize the SCI outcomes.     

Injury to the spinal cord without radiological abnormality (SCIWORA) in adults

Injury to the spinal cord without radiological abnormality often occurs in the skeletally immature cervical and thoracic spine. We describe four adult patients with this diagnosis involving the cervical spine with resultant quadriparesis. The relevant literature is reviewed. The implications for initial management of the injury, the role of MRI and the need for a high index of suspicion are highlighted.     

放射影像学检查无异常的颈椎脊髓损伤的临床研究进展

放射影像学检查无异常的颈椎脊髓损伤（SCI）是指X线片或CT未见骨折、脱位,但合并颈椎SCI症状的一种特殊类型的SCI^[1],国外最早报道见于儿童,占儿童SCI的3%~66%^[1-3] ;国内主要见于成人,并命名为无骨折脱位型颈椎SCI,占颈椎SCI的20%^[4]。放射影像学检查无异常的颈椎SCI均可导致不同程度瘫痪等严重后果,主要有完全横断性损伤、中央管综合征、脊髓半切综合征、不完全性SCI 4种类型^[1,3-6],临床症状为损伤平面以下感觉减退或异常、肌力下降以及膀胱功能障碍,部分可合并颈神经根损伤;成人以中央管损伤综合征最为常见^[4,7],损伤可表现为非连续性、延迟性,在3~7 d达到高峰,此时的MRI表现较入院时与最终愈后具有明显相关性^[8-9]。儿童和成人放射影像学检查无异常的颈椎SCI各具特点,两者在临床发病、MRI表现及治疗上存在明显差异,本文查阅国内外文献,就当前的临床研究进展作如下综述。     

无骨折脱位型颈髓损伤的临床研究

目的：探讨颈椎在无骨折脱位情况下出现颈髓损伤的临床机制。方法：观察２４例无骨折脱位型颈髓损伤，重点分析其影像学检查特点。结果：２７％病例合并椎管狭窄，８３％的病例存在椎间盘突出，不同程度压迫脊髓。结论：无骨折脱位型颈脊髓损伤机制中，存在外伤致颈椎间盘损伤，突出的间盘向后压迫损伤颈髓。颈椎间盘损伤受力机制为屈曲→压缩→过伸。颈椎管狭窄、椎间盘退变等是此类脊髓损伤的病理解剖基础     

Applications of diffusion-weighted MRI in thoracic spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality

Diffusion-weighted MRI (DWI) has been proposed as a method to evaluate the integrity of white matter tracts in the spinal cord. The integrity of the spinal cord reflects the exact stage of traumatic injury. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of DWI in SCIWORA in the thoracic spine. A total of five patients with thoracic SCIWORA underwent MRI and DWI within 48 h of injury. DWIs were obtained with a single-shot fast spin-echo (SSFSE) sequence; TI- and T2-weighted images were obtained with spin echo. Consistency among the clinical presentation, outcome, MRI and DWI was analysed. There was complete injury in one patient and partial in four patients. Four patients showed hypointense T1-weighted signal and hyperintense T2-weighted signal, and one patient had no changes on MRI. All patients showed hyperintense signal on DWI. Two patients made good recoveries (ASIA grades D and E), one had a moderate recovery (ASIA grade C), and two showed minimal or no improvement (ASIA grade A or B) in neurological function. Patients with no cord changes on MRI showed abnormal signals on DWI. It is likely that in the future DWI may provide important information complimentary to conventional MRI and allow a better prognostic evaluation of recovery from SCIWORA.

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Résumé L’IRM en séquence de diffusion (DWI) a été proposé pour évaluer l’intégrité de la substance blanche au sein de la moelle spinale dont l’état reflète exactement les lésions traumatiques. L’étude présentée évalue la valeur diagnostique de la DWI dans les syndromes de traumatisme médullaire sans anomalie radiographique (SCIWORA) au niveau du rachis thoracique. Cinq patients avec un tel syndrome ont eu une IRM et une DWI dans les 48 h suivant le traumatisme. L’aspect clinique, l’évolution, l’IRM et la DWI ont été analysé. Il y avait une lésion complète chez un patient et des lésions partielles chez quatre. En IRM quatre patients avaient un signal hypointense en T1 et un signal hyperintense en T2 et un patient n’avait pas de modification visible. Tous les patients avaient un signal hyperintense en DWI. Deux patients avaient une bonne récupération neurologique (grade ASIA D et E), un avait une récupération modérée (grade ASIA C) et deux avaient une récupération minime ou nulle (grade ASIA A ou B). Les patients sans anomalie à l’IRM avaient des signaux anormaux en DWI. Dans le futur la DWI pourra apporter des informations complémentaires à l’IRM conventionnelle et permettre une meilleure évaluation du pronostic des traumatismes médullaires sans anomalie radiographique.

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急性无骨折脱位型颈髓损伤的机制与治疗

目的 探讨急性创伤性无骨折脱位型颈脊髓损伤的机制及治疗方法。方针 对２７例无骨折脱位型颈脊髓损伤患者进行ＲＭＩ检查;８例颈椎间盘突出对脊髓压迫明显者予以手术治疗,１９例予以非手术治疗;分别于入院时及治疗后６周对脊髓损伤程度按ＡＳＩＡ标准分级评定。结果 采用大剂量甲基强的松龙治疗６例患者,６周后ＡＳＩＡ分级平均提高了２个等级,神经功能改善较明显;颈椎间盘突出明显者早期手术治疗神经功能有一定改善,受伤     

Epidemiology of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in children: a nationwide perspective

Purpose

To characterize the epidemiology and costs associated with spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality (SCIWORA) based on patient age.

Methods

An analysis of data complied for 2012 in the Healthcare Utilization Project KID database (HCUP-KID), which represents a nationwide database of pediatric admissions, was performed. An initial search identified all children diagnosed with SCIWORA based on International Classification of Diseases, 9th edition (ICD-9) codes. Only data on patients aged <18 years were included in the analysis. The associated codes were then searched to identify the cause of injury. Pertinent epidemiologic data were collected from the database, including age, gender, and racial group. Injury level and pattern were determined from the associated ICD-9 codes, as were associated injuries. Hospital data included length of stay, in-hospital mortality, total hospital charges, and primary payer. All data were compiled and stratified based on patient age into three groups: group 1, age 0–3 years; group 2, age 4–10 years; group 3, age 11–17 years. These data were compared using Student’s t test and Chi-squared analyses.

Results

A total of 297 patients were identified who met the inclusion criteria. There was a slight predominance of females among the youngest patients (53 %) with a significant dominance of males in the oldest group (72 %) (p < 0.001). The most common race among the patients studied was white (50 %) followed by Hispanic (14 %), Black (12 %), Asian/Pacific Islander (4 %), and Native American (1 %). Overall, the most common cause of injury was sports injuries, which were responsible for 122/297 (41 %) injuries, followed by motor vehicle collisions (26 %). Mechanisms of injury were significantly varied based on age group, with motor vehicle collisions the most common cause in the youngest two age groups and sports injuries the most common in the oldest age group (p < 0.05). The most common location injured was the cervical spine (46 %), with the upper cervical spine most commonly injured, particularly in the younger age groups. Additional injuries were found in 158/297 (53 %) of patients, and these were more common among younger patients. Head trauma was the most common associated injury in all age groups, but the highest rate was found the youngest age groups (p < 0.0001). The average hospital stay for all patients was 13 days, with longer stays seen in younger age groups (p < 0.05). In-hospital mortality was uncommon among these patients and occurred in only 6/297 (2 %) of patients. Hospital charges were highest in the younger age groups, with an average charge of $210,772 for those in the youngest age group, decreasing to $72,178 for those in group 3 (p < 0.0005). The most common payer was public insurance/medicaid in the youngest age group and private insurance in groups 2 and 3 (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

SCIWORA is an uncommon but potentially devastating injury in children. As with many pediatric injuries, this injury is heterogeneous between children of differing ages. This analysis of a nationwide series of children with such injuries identified significant differences in injury location, causes of injury, associated injuries, and hospital charges associated with this diagnosis.