Dosimetric characterization of a multileaf collimator]

INTRODUCTION: We studied the dosimetric characteristics of a multileaf collimator (MLC) installed on a dual energy accelerator with 6 and 18 MV photon beams in the Radiotherapy Department of Mauriziano Umberto I Hospital in Turin initiating its use in clinical practice. In particular, measurements included transmission through and between the leaves and at the junction under closed-leaves, central axis percentage depth dose, output factors and effective penumbra. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The MLC installed on the dual energy (6 and 18 MV) linear accelerator Varian Clinac 2100 C/D used in our radiotherapy department is an add-on component positioned below the standard jaws; it consists of 40 computer-controlled opposed pairs of 5 cm thick tungsten leaves, each projecting a 1 cm width at the isocenter, and it provides a maximum treatment field of 40 x 40 cm2 at 100 cm SAD. Transmission, penumbra and scalloping values were measured with the standard radiographic film routinary used in our department. A laser scanning photodensitometer (WP102, Wellhofer) with a 450 microns spot was used to obtain the optical density and the relative dose profile. Radiographic films had been calibrated with an ionization chamber, by irradiating samples to known doses; this calibration was used to correct the film scanner readings to dose. Percentage depth doses were also measured in an automatic water phantom (WP600, Wellhofer) for irregular fields defined by either MLC or alloy blocks, in order to test the differences in the build-up region due to the presence of the acrylic accessory tray. Measured and calculated output factors were compared for some irregular fields defined by the MLC. This comparison tested the algorithm accuracy of our Treatment Planning System 3D CadPlan 3.1.1 Varian-Dosetek. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: For both energies, approximately 2% of the incident radiation on the MLC is transmitted and an additional 0.5% leakage occurs between adjacent leaves. The leakage under closed-leaves junction is remarkable: about 25-33%. Relative depth dose curves are similar for two fields shaped by either MLC or conventional jaws. Skin dose with MLC-shaped field is less (3.5%) than the one with cerrobend block-shaped fields. The monitor unit calculation procedure used in our treatment planning system can be applied to the MLC (the difference is less than 1%). Effective penumbra in MLC-shaped irregular fields is on the average 11 mm, which is slightly wider (2-3 mm) than the conventional cerrobend blocks penumbra. Effective penumbra increases with depth, field width and leaves positioning. CONCLUSIONS: The MLC, if properly used (collimator rotation, jaws and leaves position, high number of fields), can be applied to conformal radiotherapy with good results. The MLC is better than conventional cerrobend blocks both to improve the treatment reproducibility and accuracy, and relative to dosimetric characteristics like dose transmission and skin dose. The use of MLC to modulate beam fluence (IMRT) will permit to modify beam intensity for improved shaping of the treated volume and to overcome the static therapy dosimetric limitations.     

Varian加速器不同的射野形成方式对射野剂量学参数的影响

目的 探讨Varian加速器不同射野形成方式对射野剂量学参数的影响,为治疗计划系统（TPS）数据建模提供理论依据。方法 在准直器（JAW）、多叶光栅（MLC）和准直器跟随多叶光栅（JAW+MLC）3种射野的形成方式下,分别测量百分深度剂量（PDD）、射野离轴量（OAR）及射野总散射因子（Scp）,并对实测数据进行分析比较。结果 3种射野形成方式对中心轴的百分深度剂量影响很小;在加速器的左右方向和枪靶方向,MLC形成的射野均较JAW形成射野大,在左右方向最大可达2.9 mm。在枪靶方向,最大可达1.7 mm。在左右方向MLC形成的射野测量曲线的半影较在相同射野大小JAW形成射野的半影大。在枪靶方向MLC形成的射野测量曲线的半影较在相同射野大小JAW形成射野的半影小。在两个方向 JAW+MLC形成射野与JAW形成射野大小与半影均无明显差异。结论 射野的不同形成方式对射野大小、半影、总散射因子有影响,建议做调强放射治疗（IMRT）时,在TPS数据建模过程中,应对MLC射野的剂量参数进行关注。     

Influence of high-definition multileaf collimator for three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy and intensity-modulated radiotherapy of prostate cancer

The focus of this work is to evaluate the dosimetric impact of treatment planning for three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3DCRT) and intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) of prostate cancer using Varian/BrainLAB 120-leaf high-definition multileaf collimator (HD120 MLC) with 2.5 mm leaf width and Varian 120-leaf millennium multileaf collimator (M120 MLC) with 5 mm leaf width. We measured the leaf transmission and dosimetric leaf gap (DLG) of two multileaf collimator (MLC) systems using Farmer ionization chamber. The dosimetric impact of treatment planning for 3DCRT and IMRT of prostate cancer for ten clinical cases using two MLC systems was evaluated quantitatively. 3DCRT was divided to 3DCRT(middle) as fitting at middle of leaf tip and 3DCRT(outside) as fitting at outside of leaf tip. The leaf transmission factor and DLG of HD120 MLC for 6 and 10 MV X-ray decreased by 0.2% and 1 mm, respectively, compared to M120 MLC. The mean conformity index of PTV of treatment planning for prostate 3DCRT(middle), 3DCRT(outside) , and IMRT decreased by 0.9%, 6.6%, and 0.9% and the mean homogeneity index increased 2.3%, 13.0%, and 4.2%, respectively. The mean V20, V40, and V65 decreased by 2.4%, 6.6%, and 4.5% for bladder and 3.3%, 6.1%, and 5.9% for rectum, respectively. The results of this work demonstrated that the dose conformity of PTV improved and the dose of bladder and rectum decreased for 3DCRT and IMRT of prostate cancer using HD120 MLC compared to M120 MLC, because of reduction of leaf width, leaf transmission, and rounded leaf end transmission.     

Study on the Tongue and Groove Effect of the Elekta Multileaf Collimator Using Monte Carlo Simulation and Film Dosimetry

BACKGROUND: Nowadays, multileaf collimation of the treatment fields from medical linear accelerators is a common option. Due to the design of the leaf sides, the tongue and groove effect occurs for certain multileaf collimator applications such as the abutment of fields where the beam edges are defined by the sides of the leaves. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this study, the tongue and groove effect was measured for two pairs of irregular multileaf collimator fields that were matched along leaf sides in two steps. Measurements were made at 10 cm depth in a polystyrene phantom using Kodak EDR2 films for a photon beam energy of 6 MV on an Elekta Sli-plus accelerator. To verify the measurements, full Monte Carlo simulations were done. In the simulations, the design of the leaf sides was taken into account and one component module of BEAM code was modified to correctly simulate the Elekta multileaf collimator. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The results of measurements and simulations are in good agreement and within the tolerance of film dosimetry.     

Effect of MLC leaf position,collimator rotation angle,and gantry rotation angle errors on intensity-modulated radiotherapy plans for nasopharyngeal carcinoma

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of multileaf collimator (MLC) leaf position, collimator rotation angle, and accelerator gantry rotation angle errors on intensity-modulated radiotherapy plans for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. To compare dosimetric differences between the simulating plans and the clinical plans with evaluation parameters, 6 patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma were selected for simulation of systematic and random MLC leaf position errors, collimator rotation angle errors, and accelerator gantry rotation angle errors. There was a high sensitivity to dose distribution for systematic MLC leaf position errors in response to field size. When the systematic MLC position errors were 0.5, 1, and 2 mm, respectively, the maximum values of the mean dose deviation, observed in parotid glands, were 4.63%, 8.69%, and 18.32%, respectively. The dosimetric effect was comparatively small for systematic MLC shift errors. For random MLC errors up to 2 mm and collimator and gantry rotation angle errors up to 0.5°, the dosimetric effect was negligible. We suggest that quality control be regularly conducted for MLC leaves, so as to ensure that systematic MLC leaf position errors are within 0.5 mm. Because the dosimetric effect of 0.5° collimator and gantry rotation angle errors is negligible, it can be concluded that setting a proper threshold for allowed errors of collimator and gantry rotation angle may increase treatment efficacy and reduce treatment time.     

BeamModulator新型多叶准直器半影的测量

目的 探讨医科达Synergy-S直线加速器配备的微型多叶准直器的半影特性。 方法 利用PTW MP3 三维水箱和PinPoint电离室分别在水中和空气中测量6、10和18 MV X线的射野离轴比曲线,数据处理后得到半影,分析半影随射线能量、模体深度以及叶片位置的变化。结果 6 MV X线在空气中的半影比水中最大剂量深度处的半影小2 mm;叶片端面的半影比叶片侧面的半影大1 mm左右。微型多叶准直器的半影大小与射线能量、模体深度以及叶片位置均有关。相同照射条件下,射线能量从6 MV提高到18 MV,半影增加1~1.5 mm;模体深度从d_max增加至10 cm,半影增加了1.5 mm;叶片位置不同,半影相差1.5~2 mm。结论 叶片的半影与其机械设计与使用条件密切相关。吸收剂量计算和治疗计划设计时需要充分考虑多叶准直器的半影特性。     

Using static MLC fields to replace partial transmission cerrobend blocks in treatment planning of rectal carcinoma cases

A treatment planning technique has been developed for using static multileaf collimators to replace partial transmission blocks for treating rectal or cervix carcinoma. The static MLC fields were used to replace the partial transmission block of the anterior-posterior pelvis field for the so-called “thunderbird” technique. Treatment plans were developed and evaluated on a commercial three-dimensional treatment planning system (FOCUS, Computerized, Medical Systems, St. Louis, MO). The result of the treatment plan comparison indicates that the static MLC fields are capable of achieving the same target, inguinal and pelvic dose distribution as the partial transmission cerrobend blocked fields. The MLC fields are easy to modify particularly for the match line adjustments. In conclusion, it is efficient and effective to use static MLC fields to replace partial transmission blocks in the “thunderbird” technique for treating rectal or cervix carcinoma.     

Using static MLC fields to replace partial transmission cerrobend blocks in treatment planning of rectal carcinoma cases

A treatment planning technique has been developed for using static multileaf collimators to replace partial transmission blocks for treating rectal or cervix carcinoma. The static MLC fields were used to replace the partial transmission block of the anterior-posterior pelvis field for the so-called “thunderbird” technique. Treatment plans were developed and evaluated on a commercial three-dimensional treatment planning system (FOCUS, Computerized, Medical Systems, St. Louis, MO). The result of the treatment plan comparison indicates that the static MLC fields are capable of achieving the same target, inguinal and pelvic dose distribution as the partial transmission cerrobend blocked fields. The MLC fields are easy to modify particularly for the match line adjustments. In conclusion, it is efficient and effective to use static MLC fields to replace partial transmission blocks in the “thunderbird” technique for treating rectal or cervix carcinoma.     

Commissioning of Peacock System for intensity-modulated radiation therapy.

The Peacock System was introduced to perform tomographic intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT). Commissioning of the Peacock System included the alignment of the multileaf intensity-modulating collimator (MIMiC) to the beam axis, the alignment of the RTA device for immobilization, and checking the integrity of the CRANE for indexing the treatment couch. In addition, the secondary jaw settings, couch step size, and transmission through the leaves were determined. The dosimetric data required for the CORVUS planning system were divided into linear accelerator-specific and MIMiC-specific. The linear accelerator-specific dosimetric data were relative output in air, relative output in phantom, percent depth dose for a range of field sizes, and diagonal dose profiles for a large field size. The MIMiC-specific dosimetric data were the in-plane and cross-plane dose profiles of a small and a large field size to derive the penumbra fit. For each treatment unit, the Beam Utility software requires the data be entered into the CORVUS planning system in modular forms. These modules were treatment unit information, angle definition, configuration, gantry and couch angles range, dosimetry, results, and verification plans. After the appropriate machine data were entered, CORVUS created a dose model. The dose model was used to create known simple dose distribution for evaluation using the verification tools of the CORVUS. The planned doses for phantoms were confirmed using an ion chamber for point dose measurement and film for relative dose measurement. The planning system calibration factor was initially set at 1.0 and will be changed after data on clinical cases are acquired. The treatment unit was released for clinical use after the approval icon was checked in the verification plans module.     

Use of segmental boost fields in the irradiation of inguinal lymphatic nodes.

En face electron fields to boost inguinal lymphatics have been used by oncologists for many years. With the introduction of multileaf collimators (MLC) and independent jaws, the practice of creating segmental fields to boost areas of interest has expanded. Typical anterior-posterior opposing field treatment of the pelvis may now be enhanced to include additional anterior segments to boost lymphatic tissue at a predetermined depth. This report illustrates the clinical implementation of one such segmental boost technique. Computer generated isodose plans utilize manual contour and CT-generated data for analysis of inguinal lymphatic depths. Potential areas of field overlap are discussed as well as the use of combined 6 and 15 MV photon energies to reduce areas of inhomogeneous dose. Technical details associated with MLC field size limits and other clinical factors are also discussed in relationship to smooth treatment delivery.     

The Performance of Multileaf Collimators Evaluated by the Stripe Test

The performance of 3 multileaf collimator (MLC) systems (Varian Medical Systems, Elekta, and Siemens Medical Solutions) mounted on 7 different radiotherapy linear accelerators was investigated by a stripe test. The stripe test consisted of 8 adjacent multileaf segments of 2.5 × 40 cm², enclosed by all leaf pairs. With 6-MV photons, the segments were used to irradiate Agfa CR films. The optical density profile of the irradiated film in the travel direction of the MLC was used to estimate the short- and long-term leaf positioning reproducibility. The short-term reproducibility was found by analyzing 6 consecutive stripe tests. The long-term reproducibility was obtained by performing 3 to 5 stripe tests over 2 months. The short-term reproducibility was mainly within 0.3 mm for all systems. For the long-term reproducibility, the Varian and Elekta MLCs were within 0.4 to 0.5 mm, while the Siemens MLC showed a wider distribution, with values up to 1 mm for some leaf pairs. The inferior long-term reproducibility of the Siemens MLCs was mainly due to a decrease of the segment size with time. In conclusion, the stripe test is a useful method for evaluating MLC performance. Furthermore, the long-term reproducibility varied among the MLC systems investigated.     

The use of a partial transmission shield to reduce the optic chiasm doses during radiation therapy treatment of brain tumors

Historically, brain tumors have been treated with lateral opposed beams for 40–45 Gy followed by more conformal reduced fields. Advances in treatment planning computers have led to the implementation of conformal non-axial techniques, allowing for escalation of dose. In patients where total doses exceed 50 Gy, adjacent critical structures can be protected with a partially shielded transmission block over the optic nerves and chiasm. By eliminating the conedown portion of the treatment a more cost and time effective treatment is achieved. Partially shielded blocks can be designed by using cerrobend or multileaf collimation. They can be included in the treatment plan and verified by an irregular field calculation and/or thermoluminescent dosimeters.     

Clinical use of a simulation-multileaf collimator

Background

At the University of Lübeck, radiotherapy is delivered by a 6/18-MV linear accelerator. Using the integrated multileaf collimator, irradiation of individually shaped treatment fields is possible in place of alloy blocks. Due to unsatisfactory pretherapeutic review of the radiation-field-specific multileaf collimator (MLC) configuration, we developed a simulation-multileaf collimator (SMLC) and assessed its feasibility at different tumor sites.

Material and Methods

The SMLC is made of a perspex carrier with 52 horizontal sliding leaves. The position of each leaf is calculated by a 3D treatment-planning computer. The technician manually adjusts the leaves according to the beams-eye-view plot of the planning computer. Consequently, the SMLC is mounted on the therapy simulator at a distance of 64.8 cm from the focus. The treatment fields and the position of the leaves are documented by X-ray films.

Results

Using the SMLC, radiation oncologists are able to review exactly the leaf configuration of each MLC-shaped radiation field and to correlate the MLC-shaped radiation field with the treated volume, the organs at risk and the port films acquired by the Portal Vision^® system.

Conclusion

The SMLC is a new tool to review radiation planning that uses an MLC in daily routine. The use of the SMLC improves the documentation and the quality assurance. It accelerates the treatment field review at the linear accelerator by comparing the SMLC simulator films with the portal images.     

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy: not a dry eye in the house

Inverse planned intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) has been applied to patients in a conformal fashion in order to avoid the lacrimal gland. In the present study, we report a patient in which a potential planned dose of 63 Gy to the lacrimal gland for a conventional plan was reduced to 12 Gy to the lacrimal gland for the IMRT plan. Dose objective inverse planning was provided using a Pinnacle treatment planning computer and treatment was delivered using a Varian dynamic multileaf collimator (MLC) on a Varian linear accelerator. Because multiple MLC segments are used to deliver the modulated treatment, conventional dose checks by manual calculation are not practical. To aid in an alternative dosimetric verification process, the Pinnacle planning computer has two unique dose tools, which provide axial and beams eye view doses on user-specified check phantoms. The combined field axial dose tool matched our ion chamber dose checks within +/- 2.4% at the isocentre. The individual beams eye view dose tool matched film dose maps within +/- 3% in the umbra.     

Dynamic positioning accuracy of a novel multileaf collimator for volumetric modulated arc therapy

We investigated the dynamic positioning accuracy of Agility (Elekta) for volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT). The accuracy of the multileaf collimator (MLC) leaf position during VMAT was evaluated using three different tests: (1) a dynamic multileaf collimator (DMLC) output test with various leaf speeds, and gantry angles; (2) a slit-fence test with and without gantry rotation; and (3) a complicated VMAT plans test with dose distributions compared with measurements using gamma analysis. The DMLC output was within 1.5 % under all test conditions. The agreement between the static and VMAT in the slit-fence test was within 0.5 mm. The pass rate of each complicated VMAT test plan was more than 93.9 % ± 0.36 for gamma analysis. We confirmed the dynamic positioning accuracy of Agility, which during VMAT delivery is within VMAT tolerances. The fastest MLC was found to have the potential to offer clinical advantages, such as high-quality rapid VMAT.     

Testing of dynamic multileaf collimator by dynamic log file

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) represents one of the most significant technical advances in radiation therapy. In the dynamic multileaf collimator (MLC) method of IMRT delivery, because of the relatively small gaps between opposed leaves and because most regions are shielded by leaves most of the time, the delivered dose is very sensitive to MLC leaf positional accuracy. A variation of +/-0.2 mm in the gap width can result in a dose variation of +/-3% for each clinical dynamic MLC field. Most often the effects of leaf motion are inferred from dose deviations on film or from variations in ionization measurements. These techniques provide dosimetric information but do not provide detailed information for diagnosing delivery problems. Therefore, a dynamic log file (Dynalog file) was used to verify dynamic MLC leaf positional accuracy. Measuring for narrow gaps using the thickness gauge could detect a log file accuracy of approximately 0.1 mm. The accuracy of dynamic MLC delivery depends on the accuracy with which the velocity of each leaf is controlled. We studied the relationship between leaf positional accuracy and leaf velocity. Leaf velocity of 0.7 cm/sec caused approximately 0.2 mm leaf positional variation. We then analyzed leaf positional accuracy for the clinical dynamic MLC field using Dynalog File Viewer (Varian Medical Systems, Inc., Palo Alto, CA), and developed a new program that can analyze more detailed leaf motions. Using this program, we can obtain more detailed information, and therefore can determine the source of dose uncertainties for the dynamic MLC field.     

Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) with Different Combinations of Treatment-Planning Systems and Linacs

PURPOSE: To compare different combinations of intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) system components with regard to quality assurance (QA), especially robustness against malfunctions and dosimetry. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three different treatment-planning systems (TPS), two types of linacs and three multileaf collimator (MLC) types were compared: commissioning procedures were performed for the combination of the TPS Corvus 5.0 (Nomos) and KonRad v2.1.3 (Siemens OCS) with the linacs KD2 (Siemens) and Synergy (Elekta). For PrecisePLAN 2.03 (Elekta) measurements were performed for Elekta Synergy only. As record and verify (R&V) system Multi-Access v7 (IMPAC) was used. The use of the serial tomotherapy system Peacock (Nomos) was investigated in combination with the Siemens KD2 linac. RESULTS: In the comparison of calculated to measured dose, problems were encountered for the combination of KonRad and Elekta MLC as well as for the Peacock system. Multi-Access failed to assign the collimator angle correctly for plans with multiple collimator angles per beam. Communication problems of Multi-Access with both linacs were observed, resulting in incorrect recording of the treatment. All reported issues were addressed by the manufacturers. CONCLUSION: For the commissioning of IMRT systems, the whole chain from the TPS to the linac has to be investigated. Components that passed the commissioning in another clinical environment can have severe malfunctions when used in a new environment. Therefore, not only single components but the whole chain from planning to delivery has to be evaluated in commissioning and checked regularly for QA.     

Peripheral dose from uniform dynamic multileaf collimation fields: implications for sliding window intensity-modulated radiotherapy

The increase in the number of monitor units in sliding window intensity-modulated radiotherapy, compared with conventional techniques for the same target dose, may lead to an increase in peripheral dose (PD). PD from a linear accelerator was measured for 6 MV X-ray using 0.6 cm3 ionization chamber inserted at 5 cm depth into a 35 cm x 35 cm x 105 cm plastic water phantom. Measurements were made for field sizes of 6 cm x 6 cm, 10 cm x 10 cm and 14 cm x 14 cm, shaped in both static and dynamic multileaf collimation (DMLC) mode, employing strip fields of fixed width 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, and 2.0 cm, respectively. The effect of collimator rotation and depth of measurement on peripheral dose was investigated for 10 cm x 10 cm field. Dynamic fields require 2 to 14 times the number of monitor units than does a static open field for the same dose at the isocentre, depending on strip field width and field size. Peripheral dose resulting from dynamic fields manifests two distinct regions showing a crest and trough within 30 cm from the field edge and a steady exponential fall beyond 30 cm. All dynamic fields were found to deliver a higher PD compared with the corresponding static open fields, being highest for smallest strip field width and largest field size; also, the percentage increase observed was highest at the largest out-of-field distance. For 6 cm x 6 cm field, dynamic fields with 0.5 cm and 2 cm strip field width deliver PDs 8 and 2 times higher than that of the static open field. The corresponding factors for 14 cm x 14 cm field were 15 and 6, respectively. The factors by which PD for DMLC fields increase, relative to jaws-shaped static fields for out-of-field distance beyond 30 cm, are almost the same as the corresponding increases in the number of monitor units. Reductions of 20% and 40% in PD were observed when the measurements were done at a depth of 10 cm and 15 cm, respectively. When the multileaf collimator executes in-plane (collimator 90 degrees) motion, peripheral dose decreases by as much as a factor of 3 compared with cross-plane data. The knowledge of PD from DMLC field is necessary to estimate the increase in whole-body dose and the likelihood of radiation induced secondary malignancy.     

Dosimetric properties of a flattening filter-free 6-MV photon beam: a Monte Carlo study

Purpose The dosimetric features of an unflattened 6-MV photon beam of an Elekta SL-25 linac was calculated by the Monte Carlo (MC) method. Material and methods The head of the Elekta SL-25 linac was simulated using the MCNP4C MC code. The accuracy of the model was evaluated using measured dosimetric features, including depth dose values and dose profiles in a water phantom. The flattening filter was then removed, and beam dosimetric properties were calculated by the MC method and compared with those of the flattened photon beam. Results Our results showed a significant (twofold) increase in the dose rate for all field sizes. Also, the photon beam spectra for an unflattened beam were softer, which led to a steeper reduction in depth doses. The decrease in the out-of-field dose and increase in the contamination electrons and a buildup region dose were the other consequences of removing the flattening filter. Conclusion Our study revealed that, for recent radiotherapy techniques, the use of multileaf collimators for beam shaping removing the flattening filter could offer some advantages, including an increased dose rate and decreased out-of-field dose.