The neuroanatomical function of leptin in the hypothalamus

The anorexigenic hormone leptin plays an important role in the control of food intake and feeding-related behavior, for an important part through its action in the hypothalamus. The adipose-derived hormone modulates a complex network of several intercommunicating orexigenic and anorexigenic neuropeptides in the hypothalamus to reduce food intake and increase energy expenditure. In this review we present an updated overview of the functional role of leptin in respect to feeding and feeding-related behavior per distinct hypothalamic nuclei. In addition to the arcuate nucleus, which is a major leptin sensitive hub, leptin-responsive neurons in other hypothalamic nuclei, including the, dorsomedial-, ventromedial- and paraventricular nucleus and the lateral hypothalamic area, are direct targets of leptin. However, leptin also modulates hypothalamic neurons in an indirect manner, such as via the melanocortin system. The dissection of the complexity of leptin's action on the networks involved in energy balance is subject of recent and future studies. A full understanding of the role of hypothalamic leptin in the regulation of energy balance requires cell-specific manipulation using of conditional deletion and expression of leptin receptors. In addition, optogenetic and pharmacogenetic tools in combination with other pharmacological (such as the recent discovery of a leptin receptor antagonist) and neuronal tracing techniques to map the circuit, will be helpful to understand the role of leptin receptor expressing neurons. Better understanding of these circuits and the involvement of leptin could provide potential sites for therapeutic interventions in obesity and metabolic diseases characterized by dysregulation of energy balance.     

Selective labeling of central and peripheral sensory neurons in the developing zebrafish using P2X(3) receptor subunit transgenes

The two paralogous P2X receptor subunit genes p2rx3.1 and p2rx3.2 are selectively expressed in overlapping, but unique, patterns of sensory neurons in the developing zebrafish. We constructed a series of transgenes derived from both genes using the recombineering technique. Transgenes utilizing either enhanced green fluorescent protein or monomeric red fluorescent protein-1 were shown to be expressed with the same spatial and temporal patterns as the native genes. The p2rx3.1-derived transgenes labeled the vast majority of the Rohon-Beard neurons in the spinal cord and neurons of the trigeminal ganglia. The p2rx3.2-derived transgene labeled fewer Rohon-Beard and trigeminal neurons than what was observed for the p2rx3.1-derived transgenes, but was also detected in neurons of the epibranchial ganglia. Three distinct populations of sensory neurons were detected: those expressing only one or the other paralog, and those expressing both paralogs. The fluorescent proteins encoded by the transgenes allowed for visualization of the neuronal somas as well as their peripheral and central projections. These reagents should prove extremely useful in providing the basis for future studies aimed at elucidating the developmental and physiological attributes of sensory neurons.     

Surgical incision can alter capsaicin-induced central sensitization in rat brainstem nociceptive neurons

Surgical trauma can affect spinal neuronal excitability, but there have been no studies of the effects of surgical cutaneous injury on central nociceptive processing of deep afferent inputs evoked by noxious stimuli such as capsaicin. Thus our aim was to test the effect of surgical cutaneous incision in influencing central sensitization induced by capsaicin injection into the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). The activity of single nociceptive neurons activated by noxious mechanical stimulation of the TMJ was recorded in the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis/upper cervical cord of halothane-anesthetized rats. The cutaneous mechanoreceptive field (RF), cutaneous mechanical activation threshold (MAT) and TMJ MAT of neurons before and after both surgical cutaneous incision alone and capsaicin injection were compared with results of incision and lidocaine pretreatment of the facial skin overlying the TMJ and capsaicin injection into the TMJ. Incision itself induced a barrage of neuronal spikes and excitability increases reflecting central sensitization (cutaneous RF expansion, cutaneous MAT reduction) in most neurons tested whereas lidocaine pretreatment significantly attenuated the barrage and central sensitization. Capsaicin injection into the TMJ induced cutaneous RF expansion, cutaneous MAT reduction and TMJ MAT reduction following lidocaine pretreatment of the cutaneous incision site whereas capsaicin injection following incision alone not only failed to induce further central sensitization but also decreased the existing incision-induced central sensitization (no cutaneous RF expansion, increased cutaneous MAT and TMJ MAT) in most neurons tested. These findings suggest that central sensitization induced by capsaicin alone or by cutaneous incision alone can readily occur in TMJ-responsive nociceptive neurons and that following incision-induced excitability increases, capsaicin may result in a temporary suppression of nociceptive neuronal changes reflecting central sensitization.     

龟板抗Parkinson病大鼠多巴胺能神经元凋亡的作用

为探讨补肾中药龟板抗Parkinson病大鼠模型黑质神经元凋亡的作用,本研究用6-羟基多巴胺(6-OHDA,0.2%)于大鼠左侧黑质致密带注射2μl造成Parkinson病(PD)模型,同时设立龟板组(灌胃补肾中药龟板2g/次,2次/d,连续12周)、模型组和正常对照组,观察其行为改变,再用HE、TH染色或DIG-dUTP染色观察黑质神经元的变化,免疫组化染色检测Bcl-2和Bax蛋白的表达。结果显示:龟板组PD大鼠的旋转行为改善明显,黑质致密部的TH染色阳性神经元增多,DIG-dUTP染色阳性率降低,Bcl-2蛋白表达增加和Bax蛋白表达减少。本文结果提示,长期龟板治疗对PD模型大鼠多巴胺能神经元凋亡具有明显的保护作用,且该作用可能与龟板升高Bcl-2和降低Bax的表达有关。     

Neuroprotective actions of ovarian hormones without insult in the raphe region of rhesus macaques

Using a nonhuman primate model of surgical menopause, our laboratory has shown that ovarian hormone treatment (HT) improves 5-HT neural function in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN). We further hypothesize that HT may increase 5-HT neuronal resilience. Recent data from microarray analysis indicated that HT regulates gene expression in pathways that lead to apoptosis. In this study, we questioned whether HT alters protein expression in caspase-dependent and independent pathways. Ovariectomized monkeys received Silastic implants containing placebo (empty), estrogen (E) or E+ progesterone (P). A small block of the midbrain containing the DRN was dissected and subjected to subcellular fractionation, yielding cytosolic, nuclear and mitochondrial fractions (n=4/group). The pro-apoptotic protein, c-jun n-terminal kinase (JNK1) and its phosphorylation were decreased by E+P treatment in the cytosolic fraction. Downstream of JNK are proteins in the caspase-dependent and -independent pathways. First, in the caspase-dependent pathway, cytoplasmic and mitochondrial fractions were immunoblotted for Bcl-2 family members, cytochrome c, Apaf1 and XIAP. However, the expression of these proteins did not differ among treatments. Pro-caspase 3 was decreased by E+P, but there was no evidence of active caspase in any group. Then, we examined the involvement of a protein in the caspase-independent pathway, called apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). AIF mRNA (n=3/group) and AIF mitochondrial protein tended to decrease with hormone treatment. However, AIF protein in the nuclear fraction in E+P treated monkeys was significantly reduced. This indicates that HT is reducing the translocation of AIF from mitochondria to nucleus, thus inhibiting AIF-mediated apoptosis. AIF was immunocytochemically localized to large 5-HT-like neurons of the dorsal raphe. These data suggest that in the absence of global trauma or ischemia, HT may act through the caspase-independent pathway to promote neuroprotection in the 5-HT system.     

Double- and triple-labeling of functionally characterized central neurons projecting to peripheral targets studied in vitro.

The use of in vitro preparations such as brain slices poses difficulties in determining the correct identity of cells under study. To circumvent this problem, we first used a fluorescence pre-labeling technique (rhodamine-dextran-lysine) to identify cranial motoneurons projecting to the tongue (hypoglossal motoneurons) in the guinea-pig. Following preparation of slices, cells were recorded intracellularly and their electrophysiological properties determined. The cells were then intracellularly stained with both a fluorescence label (Lucifer Yellow) and with the stable, non-fading label biocytin. Under fluorescent illumination, the great majority of recorded cells within the hypoglossal nucleus were double-labeled (rhodamine and Lucifer Yellow) suggesting that most are indeed motoneurons. Biocytin injected into the same motoneurons provided permanent and detailed images of their morphology. Intracellularly stained cells surrounding the hypoglossal nucleus were not labeled with rhodamine and had distinct electro-physiological properties. The use of the retrogradely transported marker rhodamine-dextran-lysine allows the unambiguous identification of motoneurons in a brainstem slice. The combined intracellular injection of Lucifer Yellow and biocytin provides a simple means of melding the advantages of a fluorescent label (compatible with other fluorescence labels and with immunocytochemistry) with the benefits of a stable, non-fading, electron-dense marker. Application of this technique should prove useful in establishing morphological and functional correlates in other areas of the CNS.     

Cellular actions of urethane on rat visual cortical neurons in vitro

Urethane is widely used in neurophysiological experiments to anesthetize animals, yet little is known about its actions at the cellular and synaptic levels. This limits our ability to model systems-level cortical function using results from urethane-anesthetized preparations. The present study found that action potential discharge of cortical neurons in vitro, in response to depolarizing current, was strongly depressed by urethane and this was accompanied by a significant decrease in membrane resistance. Voltage-clamp experiments suggest that the mechanism of this depression involves selective activation of a Ba2+-sensitive K+ leak conductance. Urethane did not alter excitatory glutamate-mediated or inhibitory (GABA(A)- or GABA(B)-mediated) synaptic transmission. Neither the amplitude nor decay time constant of GABA(A)- or GABA(B)-mediated monosynaptic inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) were altered by urethane, nor was the frequency of spontaneous IPSCs. These results are consistent with observations seen in vivo during urethane anesthesia where urethane produced minimal disruption of signal transmission in the neocortex.     

神经生长因子对体外培养大脑基底神经节神经元的保护作用

目的:研究神经生长因子(NGF)对谷氨酸造成的体外培养大脑基底神经节神经元损伤后的再生及防止神经元坏死的保护作用。方法:原代培养的胎鼠前脑基底神经节神经元,分为对照组、谷氨酸损伤组和谷氨酸损伤后NGF保护组。用倒置相差显微镜进行活细胞观察、采用RT-PCR技术检测前脑基底神经节神经元GAP-43和NF-L基因表达。结果:谷氨酸损伤神经元胞体回缩,突起消失或断裂。加入NGF后神经元绝大多数细胞胞体饱满,突起明显,细胞问的网络联系清晰可见,接近于对照组;NGF保护组大脑基底神经节GAP-43 mRNA和NF-L mRNA表达与损伤组比较具有显著性差异。结论:NGF可保护谷氨酸造成体外培养的大脑基底神经节损伤后的再生,并防止神经元坏死。     

Sensitization of central trigeminovascular neurons: Blockade by intravenous naproxen infusion

We have previously observed that migraine attacks impervious to triptan therapy were readily terminated by subsequent i.v. administration of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ketorolac. Since such attacks were associated with periorbital allodynia—a symptom of central sensitization—we examined whether infusion of the NSAID naproxen can block sensitization of central trigeminovascular neurons in the medullary dorsal horn, using in vivo single-unit recording in the rat. Topical exposure of the cerebral dura to inflammatory soup (IS) for 5 min resulted in a short-term burst of activity (<8 min) and a long-lasting (>120 min) neuronal hyper-responsiveness to stimulation of the dura and periorbital skin (group 1). Infusion of naproxen (1 mg/kg) 2 h after IS (group 1) brought all measures of neuronal responsiveness back to the baseline values recorded prior to IS, and depressed ongoing spontaneous activity well below baseline. When given preemptively 1 h before IS (group 2), naproxen blocked the short-term burst of activity and every long-term measure of neuronal hyper-responsiveness that was studied in the central neurons. The same preemptive treatment, however, failed to block IS-induced short-term bursts of activity in C-unit meningeal nociceptors (group 3). The results suggest that parenteral administration of naproxen, unlike triptan therapy, can exert direct inhibition over central trigeminovascular neurons in the dorsal horn. Though impractical as a routine migraine therapy, parenteral NSAID administration should be useful as a non-narcotic rescue therapy for migraine in the setting of the emergency department.     

Trophic actions of neurotrophin-3 on postnatal rat myenteric neurons in vitro

A number of neurotrophic factors have been implicated in the prenatal development of the enteric nervous system. Although several of these factors continue to be expressed in the gut during postnatal life, their actions on postnatal enteric neurons are not understood. One such factor is the neurotrophin, NT-3. Both NT-3 and its high affinity receptor, trk C, are expressed in the postnatal gut at a time when changes in the density of intestinal innervation are occurring. We have therefore examined the effects of NT-3 on postnatal myenteric neurons, using dissociated cell cultures of ganglia isolated from 6-8 day postnatal rat small intestine. Effects of NT-3 on neurite outgrowth and neuronal and glial cell numbers were measured after 2 days in vitro. The proportion of neurons was increased in NT-3 treated cultures, as was the proportion of neurons that extended processes. NT-3 treatment, at concentrations of between 0.1 ng and 10 ng/ml, also resulted in a significant increase in mean total neurite length. These results indicate that NT-3 may play a role in the postnatal development of the enteric nervous system.     

The role of leptin in leptin resistance and obesity

Although the presence of hyperleptinemia with leptin resistance and obesity has long been recognized, a causal role of elevated leptin in these biological states remains unclear. This article summarizes some recent work from our laboratory supporting the concept that leptin, in and of itself, promotes leptin resistance and such resistance compounds the metabolic impact of diet-induced obesity. Results from multiple studies demonstrate that (1) chronically elevated central leptin decreases hypothalamic leptin receptor expression and protein levels and impairs leptin signaling; (2) leptin resistance and obesity are associated with reduced leptin receptors and diminished maximal leptin signaling capacity; and (3) leptin resistance confers increased susceptibility to diet-induced obesity. In essence, the augmented leptin accompanying obesity contributes to leptin resistance, and this leptin resistance promotes further obesity, leading to a vicious cycle of escalating metabolic devastation.     

牛膝多肽对体外培养的MPP~+诱导的大鼠多巴胺能神经元凋亡的保护作用

目的:观察牛膝多肽(achyranthes bidentatapolypeptides,ABPP)对MPP~+(1-甲基-4-苯基-吡啶离子)损伤多巴胺能神经元的保护作用。方法:原代培养大鼠胚胎中脑多巴胺能神经元,与浓度50 ng/ml的ABPP或50ng/ml神经生长因子(NGF)共同孵育6 h,加入20μmol/L MPP~+损伤多巴胺能神经元12 h。使用四甲基偶氮唑盐(methyl thiaaolyl terazolium salt color imetry,MTT)比色法测定细胞活力;采用末端标记技术(Td T-mediated d UTP Nick-End Labeling,TUNEL)检测细胞凋亡;流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡;Western Blot检测细胞凋亡相关蛋白Bcl-2和Bax的表达水平。结果:ABPP或NGF预处理6 h可增强多巴胺能神经元的细胞活力,抑制MPP~+损伤后多巴胺能神经元的凋亡,上调Bcl-2/Bax蛋白的表达水平。ABPP对大鼠多巴胺能神经元的保护作用优于NGF。结论:与NGF相比,ABPP发挥了更好的拮抗MPP~+对多巴胺能神经元损伤的作用,其机制可能与上调Bcl-2/Bax蛋白的表达水平相关。     

中药颤复宁对多巴胺神经元的保护作用及其机理

目的:观察中药颤复宁血清对多巴胺神经元的生长状况和细胞内钙离子浓度的影响,并探讨其保护作用的机理。方法:用血清药理学方法制备中药颤复宁大鼠血清,加入到6-羟基多巴(6-OHDA)处理的多巴胺神经元培养液中,检测酪氨酸羟化酶(TH)阳性细胞数及测量TH阳性神经元胞体面积和最长突起的长度。用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜检测细胞内钙离子浓度。结果:6-OHDA损伤后,对照血清组多巴胺神经元数量减少,突起变短,细胞内钙离子浓度升高。而颤复宁血清组TH阳性细胞数量多,多巴胺神经元最大突起长度长,细胞内钙离子浓度明显降低(P<0.01)。结论:中药颤复宁血清能提高多巴胺神经元的生长活性,平衡细胞内钙离子浓度,对6-OHDA体外毁损的多巴胺神经元具有直接的保护作用。     

The actions of anandamide on rat superficial medullary dorsal horn neurons in vitro

Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were made from neurons in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis and trigeminal ganglion, in vitro , to investigate the cellular actions of the endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide. Anandamide has been shown to act through both the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and the vanilloid receptor 1 (VR1). Anandamide (30 μ m ) caused a 54 % increase in the rate of miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents (mEPSCs), without affecting their amplitude. The effect of anandamide was blocked by the VR1 antagonist capsazepine (20 μ m ), but not by the CB1-specific antagonist AM251 (3 μ m ). Application of the VR1 receptor agonist capsaicin (300 n m ) caused a 4200 % increase in the mEPSC rate. In dissociated trigeminal ganglion neurons, both anandamide and capsaicin caused an outward current in neurons that were voltage clamped at +40 mV. The maximal outward current produced by anandamide (EC₅₀, 10 μ m ) was 45 % of that produced by capsaicin (10 μ m ). Co-application of the VR1 antagonist capsazepine (30 μ m ) completely reversed the effects of both capsaicin and anandamide. The anandamide transport inhibitor, AM404 (30 μ m ) caused a 40 % increase in mEPSC rate in the slice preparation and an outward current in dissociated neurons. The latter current was reversed by the VR1 antagonist iodoresiniferatoxin (1 μ m ). The fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) (20 μ m ) and OL53 (1 μ m ) did not enhance the effect of anandamide in either the slice or dissociated neuron preparations. These results suggest that within the superficial medullary dorsal horn, anandamide (30 μ m ) acts presynaptically to enhance the release of glutamate via activation of the VR1 receptor.     

Influence of in vitro lactic acidosis on central nervous system neurons

Central nervous system (CNS) cultured neurons while exposed to different concentrations and pH of L-lactic acid exhibited in general chromatin clumping, vacuolization in the cytoplasm, appearance of lipid bodies, accumulation of polyribosomes, cytoplasmic lucency and swollen and aggregation of mitochondria. These alterations progressed with lower pH and longer exposure to lactic acid. At pH 7.4, there was no considerable pathologic changes in cultured neurons irrespective to concentrations of lactic acid added. Comparable results were obtained with the use of other weak acid (citric acid) indicating that the observed changes were due to acidic pH rather than lactate per se.     

The reaction of mesencephalic trigeminal neurons to peripheral nerve transection in the adult rat

Summary The effects of peripheral nerve transection on mesencephalic trigeminal (MeV) neurons have been studied qualitatively and quantitatively in the rat. In the qualitative part of the study the brain stem was studied in Fink-Heimer stained sections 3–30 days after a masseteric nerve transection. Degeneration argyrophilia was observed both in the MeV tract and in the supratrigeminal and trigeminal motor nuclei, as well as in the lateral part of the brain stem reticular formation. The first signs of transganglionic degeneration (TGD) were seen 7 days postoperatively, and the amount of degeneration increased considerably with longer survival times. A quantitative analysis of the MeV nucleus was made 60 days after transection of the left masseteric nerve. This analysis showed a 10.5–22.7% reduction of cells on the side that had undergone masseteric nerve transection. The mean difference (left vs right side) was -2.4% in animals that had not been operated on. These findings show that mesencephalic trigeminal neurons with proprioceptive functions are very sensitive to peripheral nerve injury with a substantial cell loss and TGD as the result.     

D-baclofen does not antagonize the actions of L-baclofen on rat neocortical neurons in vitro

The ability of D-baclofen to antagonize the actions of L-baclofen on rat neocortical neurons was investigated. Intracellular recordings were made from neurons in cortical layers 2 and 3 in an in vitro slice preparation. Baclofen stereoisomers were applied at known concentrations in the superfusion medium. At a concentration of 3 microM, L-baclofen produced approximately 70% depressions of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs) that were evoked by stimulation of superficial cortical layers. L-baclofen also hyperpolarized neocortical neurons. These hyperpolarizations were accompanied by decreases in neuronal input resistance and in direct excitability. We have shown previously that these latter effects are secondary to the action of baclofen to increase the potassium conductance of neocortical neurons. D-baclofen, at concentrations of 1-100 microM, did not antagonize depressions by L-baclofen of EPSPs and IPSPs nor the action of L-baclofen to increase the potassium conductance of neocortical neurons. At concentrations of 50-100 microM, D-baclofen produced 20-30% effects when applied alone, thus suggesting that these concentrations of D-baclofen produced a significant degree of receptor occupancy. Our results demonstrate that D-baclofen is not an antagonist or high affinity partial agonist at the receptors through which baclofen exerts its effects on single neurons in the rat neocortex.