The role of recreational sport activity in Achilles tendon rupture. A clinical, pathoanatomical, and sociological study of 292 cases

During the last few decades, the incidence of tendon ruptures has increased in civilized countries. Our material comprises 749 patients who had 832 tendon ruptures treated surgically between 1972 and 1985. There were no competitive athletes among the patients studied. There were 292 single ruptures of the Achilles tendon, 274 of the proximal biceps brachii, 113 of the extensor pollicis longus, and 70 of other tendons. Forty-eight patients had multiple ruptures and 35 patients had reruptures. Achilles tendon ruptures often occurred in recreational sports activities (59%), in contrast to other tendon ruptures (2%; P less than 0.001). The mean age for patients who had Achilles tendon rupture was 35.2 years and for patients with other ruptures, 50.7 years (P less than 0.001). There was a connection between the high incidence of blood group O and tendon ruptures (P less than 0.001). In cases of multiple ruptures and reruptures, the frequency of blood group O was 71%. Sixty-two point three percent of the patients with Achilles tendon rupture were professionals or white collar workers, which is markedly more than in the Hungarian population (12.7%; P less than 0.001). Two hundred and six Achilles tendon ruptures were studied histologically, and all cases displayed pathological alterations. The results indicate that complete rupture of the Achilles tendon is usually a sequel to a sedentary life-style and participation in sports activities.     

Etiology and pathophysiology of tendon ruptures in sports

Of all spontaneous tendon ruptures, complete Achilles tendon tears are most closely associated with sports activities (1–3). Schönbauer (3) reported that 75% of all ruptures of the Achilles tendon are related to sports. In Plecko & Passl (2) the number was 60%. In our material of 430 cases, the number of sports-related Achilles ruptures was very similar (62%), while only 2% of ruptures of other tendons were sports-related (P<0.001) (1). Also, the majority of Achilles reruptures occurred in sports. The ruptures occurred most often in soccer (34%), track and field (16%) and basketball (14%). The distribution of Achilles ruptures according to different sports varies considerably from country to country, according to the national sport traditions. For example, in northern and middle Europe, soccer, tennis, track and field, indoor ball games, downhill skiing, and gymnastics are the most common; and in North America, football, basketball, baseball, tennis and downhill skiing dominate the statistics (1, 2, 4). In sports, some Achilles ruptures are not spontaneous or degeneration-induced but may occur as a consequence of the remarkably high forces that are involved in the performance (2). Ruptures in the high jump or triple jump are good examples. In such cases, failure in the neuromuscular protective mechanisms due to fatigue or disturbed co-ordination can frequently be found. The spontaneous complete rupture of the supraspinatus tendon of the rotator cuff does not occur very frequently in sports. Those sports that include high-energy throwing movements, such as American and Finnish baseball, American football, rugby and discus and javelin throwing, may, however, produce this injury. Partial tears and inflammations of the rotator cuff complex are much more frequent in throwing sports. The complete rupture of the proximal long head of the biceps brachii tendon is rare among competitive and recreational athletes. In our material, under 2% of these ruptures were associated with sports activities (5). The rupture (avulsion) of the distal tendon of the biceps muscle is rare. In sports, gymnastics, body building and weight lifting have been said to be able to produce this injury (6). In general, complete ruptures of the quadriceps tendon and the patellar tendon occur most often in older individuals. In our study, the mean age of these patients was 65 years (5). However, these injuries do also occur in younger age groups, especially in athletes. In athletes, the rupture most frequently occurs in high-power sports events, such as high jump, basketball and weight lifting, at the age of 15-30 years. A chronic patellar apicitis (jumper's knee) may predispose rupture of the tendon (7). As is the case with the rotator cuff complex, overuse inflammation and partial tears of the quadriceps and patellar tendons are one of the most characteristic athletic injuries. Complete spontaneous ruptures of other tendons in sports are rare, although the literature does provide case studies from almost every tendon the human body possesses (8–18).     

Contralateral tendon rupture risk is increased in individuals with a previous Achilles tendon rupture

The purpose of this study was to examine the outcome after surgery for an acute Achilles tendon rupture. In particular, we wanted to study whether persons who have suffered an Achilles tendon rupture are at greater risk of a contralateral tendon rupture. From September 1990 to April 1997, 168 acute Achilles tendon ruptures in 26 women and 142 men were treated operatively. In August 1998 (median: 4.2 years post injury), 154 of these patients (92%) responded to a follow-up questionnaire. Local symptoms (pain, decreased strength and/or reduced range of motion) were reported pre injury by 25% of the patients; at follow-up this had increased to 52%. Ten patients (6%) experienced a rupture on the contralateral side during the follow-up period (OR: 176 [70-282] vs. the expected rate based on the general population risk of this injury, P<0.001). Thus, this study suggests that patients with an Achilles tendon rupture are at significantly increased risk of a contralateral tendon rupture, as well. Also, as many as half of the patients suffered from post-injury problems at long-term follow-up.     

Reconstruction of neglected Achilles tendon rupture using the flexor hallucis tendon

Neglected ruptures of the Achilles tendon (AT) are not common and have a greater tendency to cause complications and to produce poorer functional results than fresh ruptures. Numerous surgical procedures have been described for the reconstruction of neglected AT ruptures. However, no report has been issued about an AT rupture neglected for more than 2 years. The authors reported about three patients (four tendons) with a neglected AT rupture of mean duration of 5 years, who were treated by interposed scar tissue repair combined with flexor hallucis longus tendon transfer. All patients experienced good clinical results and were satisfied with surgery. None of the authors received financial support for this study.     

Management of partial tears of the gastro-soleus complex

Although Achilles tendon is the strongest tendon in the human body, it is one of the most commonly injured tendons. Most Achilles ruptures are associated with sports activity. Up to one-fourth of all Achilles tendon pathologies are partial ruptures. Increased recognizability of partial rupture of Achilles tendon is connected with the development of ultrasound and MRI techniques. Partial ruptures of Achilles tendon are a clinical demonstration of asymmetric loading of Achilles tendon caused by its special anatomic structure. To describe those partial injuries, the author created histologic and anatomic classification. In this article detailed treatment options has been proposed.     

Long-term results after surgical management of partial Achilles tendon ruptures

Although Achilles tendon injuries are common overuse injuries in sports, the exact incidence is unknown, primarily as a result of varying definitions and diagnoses of the underlying pathological changes. Despite numerous studies of treatment of the Achilles tendon injuries, the longterm results are not well known. The results after surgical treatment of chronic partial Achilles tendon ruptures in 64 patients with a follow-up of 6 (1.5–11) years were evaluated in a retrospective study. The ruptures were divided into three groups: (I) proximal (more than 3 cm above the calcaneus), (II) distal and (III) combined (proximal and distal). All patients underwent an operation involving the excision of the devitalized tendon tissue and, in groups (II) and (III), also the excision of the deep Achilles bursa and removal of the dorsal corner of the calcaneus. The functional results were satisfactory in 43 (67%) patients and unsatisfactory in 21 (33%). The results were better in patients with proximal ruptures than in patients with either distal or combined ruptures. Males experienced better results than females. Post-operative immobilization in a plaster cast had no significant influence on the final result. Nine (14%) patients with either a distal or a combined rupture were re-operated on and in seven of them the final result was satisfactory. The conclusion of this study is that partial Achilles tendon ruptures are often difficult to treat and only two out of three patients can be expected to obtain satisfactory results after surgical treatment.     

Simultaneous bilateral Achilles tendon ruptures associated with statin medication despite regular rock climbing exercise

IntroductionRuptures of the Achilles tendon are common however simultaneous ruptures occur less frequently. Eccentric loading exercise programmes have been used to successfully treat Achilles tendinopathy.Case reportWe report a case of simultaneous bilateral Achilles tendon rupture in a patient predisposed to rupture due to longstanding raised serum lipoprotein and recently introduced therapeutic statin medication. The patient was also a keen rock climber and had regularly undertaken loading exercise.ConclusionThis case illustrates that the therapeutic effect of mixed loading exercises for the Achilles tendon may not be adequate to overcome the predisposition to rupture caused by hyperlipidaemia and statin medication.     

Achilles tendon rupture – treatment and complications: A systematic review

Achilles tendon rupture is a frequent injury with an increasing incidence. Until now, there is no consensus regarding optimal treatment. The aim of this review was to illuminate and summarize randomized controlled trials comparing surgical and non‐surgical treatment of Achilles tendon ruptures during the last 10 years. Seven articles were found and they were all acceptable according to international quality assessment guidelines. Primary outcomes were re‐ruptures, other complications, and functional outcomes. There was no significant difference in re‐ruptures between the two treatments, but a tendency to favoring surgical treatment. Further, one study found an increased risk of soft‐tissue‐related complications after surgery. Patient satisfaction and time to return to work were significantly different in favor of surgery in one study, and there was also better functional outcome after surgery in some studies. These seven studies indicate that surgical patients have a faster rehabilitation. However, the differences between surgical and non‐surgical treatment appear to be subtle and it could mean that rehabilitation is more important, rather than the actual initial treatment. Therefore, further studies will be needed in regard to understanding the interplay between acute surgical or non‐surgical treatment, and the rehabilitation regimen for the overall outcome after Achilles tendon ruptures.     

Sonographic appearance of nonoperatively treated Achilles tendon ruptures

Objective. This report describes the gray-scale and color Doppler sonographic appearance of healed Achilles tendon ruptures that have been treated nonoperatively. Design and patients. Eleven patients with acute Achilles tendon ruptures were studied with sonography in the acute setting and following nonoperative management of their torn tendon. Results. On sonographic examination, healed tendons treated nonoperatively are characterized by mild residual distortion of the normal fibrillar architecture of the tendon, anterior bulging or irregularity of the healed tendon, and a hypoechoic area about the site of rupture. Less frequent observations include mildly increased color flow and calcification at the rupture site. The previously described findings of acute tears, including hematomas, gaps at the rupture site, hyperemic torn tendon ends, and markedly distorted fibrillar architecture, were seen to have resolved in this series. Conclusion. The Achilles tendon tear treated nonoperatively has a different sonographic appearance from that of a normal or acutely ruptured tendon. Received: 24 November 1999 Revision requested: 23 January 2000 Revision received: 8 February 2000 Accepted: 8 February 2000     

急性闭合跟腱断裂端端缝合术后远期疗效观察

目的 评价急性闭合跟腱断裂端端缝合术后的远期疗效.方法 2000年11月-2006年6月收治28例急性闭合跟腱断裂患者,其中男20例,女8例,年龄19～48岁,平均36.5岁,术前MRI提示跟腱完全断裂,所有病例均在伤后4d内行手术治疗.跟腱断端稍做修整后,采用Kessler法或Bunnell法行端端缝合,术后随访12～36个月,平均20个月,参照Arner-Lindholm评分标准进行疗效评定,并对术后并发症进行记录.结果 28例患者中优19例,良9例,优良率100%,术后3个月均恢复正常行走并开始康复训练.随访期内无周围神经损伤,无跟腱再断裂.术后并发症包括浅表伤口感染1例、伤口皮缘坏死l例,并发症发生率7.1%.结论 端端缝合术修复急性闭合跟腱断裂术后并发症少,长期随访疗效优良.     

Avoiding sural nerve injuries during percutaneous Achilles tendon repair

BACKGROUND: Sural nerve injury is a reported risk during percutaneous repair of the Achilles tendon. HYPOTHESIS: Exposure of the sural nerve during percutaneous repair can minimize the risk of nerve injury. STUDY DESIGN: Case control study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: The authors retrospectively examined the results of 84 patients who were treated for acute Achilles tendon rupture at 2 different hospitals. Both hospitals used the same percutaneous repair technique, except that the sural nerve was exposed in the 38 patients (mean age, 38 years; range, 23-68 years) of one hospital; the nerve was not exposed in the 46 patients (mean age, 42 years; range, 24-71 years) of the other hospital (the nonexposure group). RESULTS: All patients recovered and returned to work after 44 days (range, 5-202 days). All patients returned to their previous sports levels within 1 year. On the 100-point Hannover Achilles Tendon Score, the mean score was 81 points (range, 44-100 points). The overall incidence of sural nerve related complications was 18%. All sural nerve lesions occurred in the nonexposure group. In the total study population, there were 3 cases of deep vein thrombosis, 1 rerupture, and 1 case of infection. CONCLUSION: Sural nerve injuries can be minimized during surgery by carefully placing the stab incisions to expose the nerve so as to avoid it during repair. If the sural nerve is exposed, percutaneous repair of the ruptured Achilles tendon is a safe and reliable method of treating Achilles tendon ruptures.     

跟腱再断裂的手术治疗15例报告

目的了解跟腱再断裂的临床表现及再手术的方法与疗效。方法15例跟腱再断裂的患者在我所进行手术治疗,术中全面观察跟腱再断裂的表现,根据不同的断裂情况选择手术方式。结果15例患者再断裂部位均为跟骨结节上3~4cm,均为原断裂部位。跟腱断端瘢痕化增粗,粘连明显。其中12例为横行断裂,2例为短马尾状断裂,1例为大部分撕裂。15例患者中9例为闭合性再断裂,6例为开放性再断裂。10例患者坚持随访至少1年,按Amer-Lindholm评分优良率为70%。结论跟腱再断裂均发生在原断裂部位,断端瘢痕化,粘连明显,多为横行断裂,急诊再手术缝合修补效果满意。     

Magnetic resonance imaging in acute tendon ruptures

The diagnosis of acute tendon ruptures of the extensor mechanism of the knee or the Achilles tendon of the ankle may usually be made by clinical means. Massive soft tissue swelling accompanying these injuries often obscures the findings, however. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can rapidly demonstrate these tendon ruptures. Examples of the use of MRI for quadriceps tendon, and Achilles tendon rupture are presented.     

Sonography of the Achilles tendon and adjacent bursae

Abnormalities of the Achilles tendon and adjacent bursae are common problems that may be difficult to diagnose clinically. Twenty patients with symptoms involving the Achilles tendon and 10 control subjects were evaluated with real-time sonography in order to explore the role of sonography in defining abnormalities of the tendon and adjacent bursae and in differentiating between conditions requiring surgery and those needing conservative therapy. Normal anatomic structures seen consistently included the Achilles tendon, the musculotendinous junction, the retrocalcaneal bursa, and the calcaneal tendon insertion site. The normal range of tendon thickness was 4-9 mm (mean, 6.2 mm). All patients had repeat sonograms after either clinical resolution (14 cases) or surgical intervention (six cases). Twelve of the symptomatic patients had abnormal findings. Partial ruptures of the Achilles tendon were reliably differentiated from other lesions. No evidence of tendon thickening was found in tendinitis. Tendon thickening was found only in cases of previous tendon rupture. The superficial tendo Achillis bursa was imaged only when inflamed. Sonography was found to differentiate reliably between conditions that require surgical intervention and those that will respond to conservative therapy.     

Ultrasonic morphology of the normal Achilles tendon and pattern of pathological changes

The anatomical structure of the Achilles tendon causes a fibrillary echo texture with fine, parallel echogenic lines. The peritendineum outlining the tendon can be delineated. Achilles tendon ruptures can easily be detected by ultrasound, as can the structural changes in achillodynia. The typical sonographic patterns of rupture of the Achilles tendon and achillodynia are demonstrated.     

Achilles tendon rupture and sciatica: a possible correlation

The association between Achilles tendon rupture and sciatica was investigated by questionnaire in 138 patients who underwent repair of an Achilles tendon rupture, and in a group of individuals nominated by the patients, matched for age, sex, and occupation. A total of 102 patients (74%) and 128 peer nominated controls (71%) replied to the questionnaire. Of the 102 respondent patients, 18 had an officebased job, 47 were involved in skilled nonmanual work, and 16 were retired. Back pain had been experienced by 63 of the patients who replied to the questionnaire, and by 91 (75%) of the individuals in the control group (difference not significant). In about 30% of both groups, the pain confined them to bed for at least two days, and resulted in absence from work. Thirteen of the patients and 16 of the controls had undergone thoracic, lumbar, or sacral radiography. One individual in each group had received surgery for back pain. However, 35 of 102 patients had experienced sciatic pain before Achilles tendon rupture. Pain of a similar nature had been experienced by only 15 individuals in the control group (12%) (p < 0.001). Using this study design, we found a highly significant association between Achilles tendon rupture and sciatica. We propose that this association could be due to impaired afferent signals from the lower leg, or to similar collagen or vascular anomalies of the vertebral disc and the Achilles tendon.


     

Cumulative incidence of achilles tendon rupture and tendinopathy in male former elite athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To study the cumulative incidence of Achilles tendon rupture and tendinopathy among former top-level athletes. DESIGN: Historical cohort study. SETTING: Finland. PARTICIPANTS: Male former elite athlete cohort members (n = 785; median age, 69 years when responding to the questionnaire; range, 54-97) and their matched controls (n = 416; median age, 68 years; range, 56-94). OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Questionnaire-reported Achilles tendinopathy and tendon rupture diagnosed by physicians before the age of 45 years and within the subjects' lifetimes. RESULTS: Cumulative incidence of Achilles tendinopathy before the age of 45 was high for middle and long-distance runners (adjusted odds ratio, 31.2 compared with controls; P < 0.001), and cumulative incidence of Achilles tendon rupture was high for sprinters (odds ratio, 14.9; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Achilles tendon problems seem to constitute clinically significant and common problems in specific sports.     

Incidence of major tendon ruptures and anterior cruciate ligament tears in US Army soldiers

BACKGROUND: Although a rare event, the prevalence of major tendon rupture has increased in recent decades. Identification of risk factors is important for prevention purposes. HYPOTHESIS: Race is a risk factor for major tendon ruptures. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study (prevalence); Level of evidence, 2. METHODS: All patients admitted for surgical management of a rupture of a major tendon at Womack Army Medical Center, Fort Bragg, North Carolina, in 1995 and 1996 were identified and evaluated for risk factors. RESULTS: The authors identified 52 major tendon ruptures: 29 Achilles, 12 patellar, 7 pectoralis major, and 4 quadriceps tendon ruptures. All patients were active-duty soldiers, and 1 was a female soldier. Forty-one tendon ruptures occurred among black soldiers, 8 occurred among white soldiers, and 3 occurred among Latino soldiers. The population at risk included 93,224 exposures during the 2-year period, of which 67.1% were white, 24.5% were black, and 8.4% were self-classified as other race. The rate ratio for tendon rupture, adjusted for gender and age, was 13.3 (95% confidence interval, 6.2-28.5) between blacks and whites and 2.9 (95% confidence interval, 0.8-10.9) between Latinos and whites. CONCLUSION: The rate of major tendon rupture was 13 times greater for black men in this study population when compared with whites. Interventions among those at a higher risk for injury should be considered.     

Potential risk of rerupture in primary achilles tendon repair in athletes younger than 30 years of age

BACKGROUND: Complete Achilles tendon ruptures are found more often in athletes who participate in sports involving explosive acceleration or maximal effort. In most studies, the consensus for athletes is surgery. This form of treatment has been shown to exhibit the best functional performance with a lower rerupture rate. HYPOTHESIS: Achilles tendon ruptures in a young population (<30 years) have a higher rerupture rate than similar injuries in an older age group (31-50 years), in which the injury is more common. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 4. METHODS: Retrospective study was carried out by chart review. Magnetic resonance images were obtained comparing appearance of repair in young and old patients at 8 to 12 weeks after operation. RESULTS: There were a total of 4 reruptures in the 89 Achilles tendon repairs. This was an overall rerupture rate of 4.5%, which was consistent with the literature. When the reruptures were critically analyzed, it was noted that the 4 reruptures of the repaired tendon occurred in a young population. Of the 89, there was a subgroup of athletes (n=24) who were 30 years of age or younger at the time of injury. The incidence of rerupture for these individuals was 16.6%. In the remaining athletes (n=65) older than 30 years, the incidence of rerupture was zero. There were no significant differences (P < or =.05) in all parameters measured (average days in a boot, average days to active range of motion, average time to full weight-bearing, average days to bike or use a stair climbing machine, average return to sports) between age groups except in the time from injury to surgery (7.1 days, for athletes < or =30 years vs 2.65 days for athletes >31 years). CONCLUSIONS: The results of Achilles tendon repair with an early weightbearing and an early range of motion rehabilitation program are good. However, caution may need to be taken in the younger athlete (< or =30 years) during rehabilitation. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Although the authors recommend aggressive rehabilitation for Achilles tendon repairs, caution should be observed in the younger athlete.     

Muscle-tendon glucose uptake in Achilles tendon rupture and tendinopathy before and after eccentric rehabilitation: Comparative case reports

Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) is the most common tendon rupture injury. The consequences of ATR on metabolic activity of the Achilles tendon and ankle plantarflexors are unknown. Furthermore, the effects of eccentric rehabilitation on metabolic activity patterns of Achilles tendon and ankle plantarflexors in ATR patients have not been reported thus far. We present a case study demonstrating glucose uptake (GU) in the Achilles tendon, the triceps surae, and the flexor hallucis longus of a post-surgical ATR patient before and after a 5-month eccentric rehabilitation. At baseline, three months post-surgery, all muscles and Achilles tendon displayed much higher GU in the ATR patient compared to a healthy individual despite lower plantarflexion force. After the rehabilitation, plantarflexion force increased in the operated leg while muscle GU was considerably reduced. The triceps surae muscles showed similar values to the healthy control. When compared to the healthy or a matched patient with Achilles tendon pain after 12 weeks of rehabilitation, Achilles tendon GU levels of ATR patient remained greater after the rehabilitation. Past studies have shown a shift in the metabolic fuel utilization towards glycolysis due to immobilization. Further research, combined with immuno-histological investigation, is needed to fully understand the mechanism behind excessive glucose uptake in ATR cases.