核苷(酸)类抗肝炎药物对慢性乙型肝炎住院患者肝肾功能的影响

目的：分析核苷（酸）类抗肝炎药物（NAs）对慢性乙型肝炎患者肝肾功能的影响,为临床合理用药提供参考。方法：综合应用某院临床药学管理系统（PASS PharmAssist）、病案质控监测系统和中国医院药物警戒系统检索病历,回顾性分析某院2017年1月至2018年6月因患慢性乙型肝炎而采用NAs药物治疗的患者病例。利用SPSS 23.0软件,采用正态分布、t检验、卡方检验进行单因素分析,把符合单因素分析（P<0.05）的协变量纳入二元logistic分析,以考察多种协变量对NAs药物诱导患者肝肾功能变化的影响。结果：收集到因患慢性乙型肝炎而服用抗肝炎药物的患者病例116份,其中包括男性79例（68.1%）,女性37例（31.9%）,肝功能正常者65例,慢性肝功能不全者51例。在肝功能不全组,NAs药物性肝损加重发生率为17.65%（9/51）,时间为用药后4~13 d;在肝功能正常组,NAs药物性肝损伤发生率为4.61%（3/65）,时间为用药后15~19 d。此外,研究表明NAs药物对肝脏的安全性为恩替卡韦 > 拉米夫定 > 阿德福韦酯 > 替比夫定 > NAs药物联用。在116例患者中肾功能正常者74例,慢性肾功能不全者42例,在肾功能不全组发现患者因服用NAs药物导致血清肌酐升高发生率为14.29%（6/42）,时间为用药后2~10 d,在肾功能正常组未发现NAs药物性肾损伤者。此外,研究表明NAs药物对肾脏的安全性为：NAs药物联用,拉米夫定,阿德福韦酯 > 恩替卡韦 > 替比夫定,相关因素分析表明NAs药物性肝损伤的发生与患者的肝功能不全（OR=5.344,95% CI：1.349-21.167）（P=0.017）有关。结论：NAs药物对患者肝功能和肾功能确实有影响,主要发生在肝功能不全患者身上,但对肝功能正常的患者影响较小。此外,核苷（酸）类抗肝炎药物中拉米夫定对肝脏和肾脏的安全性相对较高。研究结果提示临床在治疗肝功能不全的患者时,应注意调整NAs药物品种或给药剂量并监测患者肝功能指标变化,以确保用药安全。     

抗病毒药物在新型冠状病毒肺炎患儿应用中的药学监护

目的： 提高抗新型冠状病毒药物在儿童患者中应用的安全性及合理性。方法： 查阅相关文献资料，从药物剂型的选择、儿童应用的年龄限制、剂量、对肝肾功能影响、不良反应、相互作用、使用方法等内容进行全面的分析总结。结果： 针对儿童这类特殊人群，临床药师给出了合理的用药建议。结论： 用于抗新型冠状病毒的治疗药物在小儿中应加强药学监护，确保小儿用药的安全性、合理性。     

抗癫痫药物在肝肾功能不全患者中使用的研究进展

临床常用抗癫痫药物根据其药动学特点可分为主要经肝代谢、主要经肾排泄和肝肾双通道清除。肝功能不全患者尽量选择主要经肾排泄的抗癫痫药物,如加巴喷丁、普瑞巴林,或评估肝功能不全的程度,适当的减少剂量。肾功能不全的患者尽量选择主要经肝代谢的抗癫痫药物,如丙戊酸钠、卡马西平、拉莫三嗪,或评估患者的肌酐清除率（CLcr）,根据CLcr进行剂量调整。对于透析的患者,结合血药浓度监测透析后补充剂量有助于个体化治疗。肝肾功能不全患者抗癫痫药物的选择、剂量调整应综合考虑患者肝肾功能情况、药物代谢特点、合并疾病、个体耐受性等因素,在抗癫痫药物使用过程中,加强对药物相互作用、药物不良反应等的监护,结合血药浓度监测,以提高临床用药的有效性与安全性。     

新型冠状病毒肺炎相关静脉血栓防治的药学服务

目的：介绍新型冠状病毒肺炎（COVID-19）治疗期间，静脉血栓（VTE）防治的药学监护策略。方法：通过查阅不同人群（如儿童、孕妇、老年患者） VTE防治的文献和指南，结合临床药师实践工作经验和对应的药品相关信息，给出不同COVID-19患者人群防治VTE的监护要点和用药参考。结果：对于所有确诊的COVID-19住院患者均应进行VTE风险评估，并根据评估结果采取预防措施。对于儿童COVID-19患者，药物预防VTE可选择达肝素钠和依诺肝素钠；对于妊娠和哺乳期COVID-19患者，建议首选低分子肝素（LMWH）；对于肝肾功能不全患者，应根据肝肾功能状态评估，进行药物选择和剂量调整。结论：COVID-19患者并发VTE是临床较为严重的情况之一，严重影响患者的治疗和预后，因此进行及时的VTE风险评估和防治，并提供实时的药学监护服务是十分必要的。     

新型冠状病毒肺炎老年患者使用抗病毒药物的药学监护

目的：提高抗新型冠状病毒药物在老年患者中使用的有效性、安全性。方法：检索文献，从老年患者的抗病毒药物选择、特殊老年患者的药学监护、不良反应、药物相互作用、用药依从性等方面总结、分析。结果：药师对老年患者提出合理的用药建议。结论：老年患者由于其特殊性，应强调个体化治疗，加强老年患者的药学监护。     

肝移植患者使用基于他克莫司或环孢素的免疫抑制方案后3年内肾功能的变化比较

目的：在这项回顾性研究中，分析了肝移植术后患者连续使用钙调磷酸酶抑制剂（环孢素vs他克莫司）前3年内的肾功能变化。方法：回顾性分析某院肝脏移植中心214名肝移植（LT）患者的资料。所有患者在LT后的前3年内均接受以钙调磷酸酶抑制剂（CNI）为基础的免疫抑制治疗，收集患者随访期间（6，12，18，24，36个月）各项指标包括血常规、肝肾功能、血糖、免疫抑制剂药物剂量及浓度等，比较患者随访期间肾功能的变化情况。结果：2组患者在接受CNI为基础的免疫抑制方案治疗后的前3年内肾功能均有不同程度的下降，环孢素组患者在移植后半年内即出现肾功能的恶化（P<0.05），而他克莫司组患者肾功能1年后也出现了显著恶化（P<0.05）。结论：与接受基于TAC的免疫抑制方案治疗的患者相比， CSA组出现肾功能恶化更明显，尤其是在LT后的前6个月。     

危重患者ECMO生命支持期间抗真菌药物TDM与剂量调整

目的： 分析危重患者体外膜肺氧合（ECMO）生命支持期间治疗药物监测（TDM）的意义,提供抗真菌药物剂量调整方案。方法： 检索PubMed、Cochrane Library至今有关ECMO期间抗真菌药物TDM相关文献进行分析综述。结果： ECMO对伏立康唑、泊沙康唑、艾沙康唑、两性霉素B脂质体的药动学影响明显,TDM结果显示,ECMO支持期间药物暴露明显降低,需要增加剂量以达到预期临床效果,推荐依据TDM结果进行个体化药物治疗方案调整;氟康唑、阿尼芬净、两性霉素B脱氧胆酸盐受ECMO影响小,可使用常规剂量并进行必要的TDM;TDM有助于提高抗真菌治疗的成功率。结论： ECMO支持期间抗真菌药物的药动学呈现复杂变化,推荐进行TDM并依次调整临床药物治疗方案。     

肝功能不全重症患者伏立康唑谷浓度监测及其影响因素分析

目的：描述肝功能不全重症患者中伏立康唑血浆谷浓度（C_min）的分布特点,并考察C_min的影响因素。方法：回顾性收集重症监护病房中接受静脉用伏立康唑治疗的肝功能不全患者的C_min数据和生理病理资料,采用Child-Pugh评分进行肝功能不全分级,伏立康唑C_min通过高效液相色谱串联质谱法（HPLC-MS/MS）测定,SPSS软件用于统计分析。结果：44例肝功能不全患者（包括肝移植患者）共92个C_min纳入最终分析。经验治疗方案下（维持剂量：200 mg bid iv）,患者的平均C_min超出治疗窗（2-6 μg·mL^-1）上限且C_min个体差异较大[中值±四分位距,（6.17±3.20）μg·mL^-1],仅43.5%的C_min在治疗范围内。Child-Pugh C级患者的C_min显著高于Child-Pugh AB级患者的C_min[（7.98±3.60）vs.（5.28±3.16）μg·mL^-1,P<0.001],Child-Pugh分级是C_min的独立影响因素。此外,肝移植患者的C_min低于非肝移植患者,且两者的C_min差异在Child-Pugh C级中较为显著[（7.35±2.95）vs.（8.99±4.21）μg·mL^-1,P=0.033]。结论：200 mg bid iv维持剂量下,伏立康唑在肝功能不全患者中的C_min高,按Child-Pugh分级的肝功能是C_min的主要影响因素。肝功能不全重症患者使用伏立康唑时,应基于Child-Pugh分级减少给药剂量和/或延长给药间隔,同时进行严密的血药浓度监测,以避免严重不良反应发生。     

伏立康唑在肝硬化患者中的治疗药物监测及用药安全性评价

目的：探讨伏立康唑在肝硬化患者中的血药谷浓度（C_min）的分布特征及影响浓度变异的因素，并对其进行用药安全性评价。方法：患者使用的维持剂量有减半维持剂量（A组）和标准维持剂量（B组），采用HPLC法测定伏立康唑血药浓度。收集伏立康唑用药相关信息，采用多元线性回归探讨影响伏立康唑C_min的因素。结果：本研究共监测了53例肝硬化病患者的74个血药浓度。A组患者伏立康唑C_min为（4.02±1.94）μg·mL^-1，B组患者伏立康唑C_min为（6.89±4.57）μg·mL^-1。其中A组中有30.8%的C_min高于治疗窗上限，B组有63.4%的C_min高于治疗窗上限。多元线性回归分析结果表明A组患者中伏立康唑C_min与白蛋白值、INR值、合并使用肝毒性药物和CYP2C19抑制剂具有显著相关性。研究中并没有发现对B组血药浓度有影响的因素。伏立康唑在A组和B组中的不良反应发生率分别为11.4%和38.9%。结论：减半维持剂量在肝硬化患者中仍具有较高的血药浓度。肝硬化患者使用伏立康唑应密切监测血药浓度，从而保证伏立康唑治疗的安全性和有效性。     

中医药在新型冠状病毒肺炎妊娠期患者治疗中的安全性分析

目的：分析中医药在新型冠状病毒肺炎（COVID-19）妊娠期患者治疗中的安全性，为临床合理用药提供参考。方法：全面地对《新型冠状病毒肺炎诊疗方案（试行第七版）》中推荐的中药处方及中成药中的药物在妊娠期使用是否安全进行分析和统计。结果：在诊疗方案中推荐的中药处方有10个，组方药物有68味中药，列入妊娠禁忌中药的有7味。推荐使用的中成药有14种，共有57味中药组成，列入妊娠禁忌中药的有15味。结论：COVID-19妊娠期患者中药的使用应权衡利弊，正确辨证，合理配伍并使用合适的剂量。     

Pharmacokinetics and dosage adjustment in patients with hepatic dysfunction

The liver plays a central role in the pharmacokinetics of the majority of drugs. Liver dysfunction may not only reduce the blood/plasma clearance of drugs eliminated by hepatic metabolism or biliary excretion, it can also affect plasma protein binding, which in turn could influence the processes of distribution and elimination. Portal-systemic shunting, which is common in advanced liver cirrhosis, may substantially decrease the presystemic elimination (i.e., first-pass effect) of high extraction drugs following their oral administration, thus leading to a significant increase in the extent of absorption. Chronic liver diseases are associated with variable and non-uniform reductions in drug-metabolizing activities. For example, the activity of the various CYP450 enzymes seems to be differentially affected in patients with cirrhosis. Glucuronidation is often considered to be affected to a lesser extent than CYP450-mediated reactions in mild to moderate cirrhosis but can also be substantially impaired in patients with advanced cirrhosis. Patients with advanced cirrhosis often have impaired renal function and dose adjustment may, therefore, also be necessary for drugs eliminated by renal exctretion. In addition, patients with liver cirrhosis are more sensitive to the central adverse effects of opioid analgesics and the renal adverse effects of NSAIDs. In contrast, a decreased therapeutic effect has been noted in cirrhotic patients with β-adrenoceptor antagonists and certain diuretics. Unfortunately, there is no simple endogenous marker to predict hepatic function with respect to the elimination capacity of specific drugs. Several quantitative liver tests that measure the elimination of marker substrates such as galactose, sorbitol, antipyrine, caffeine, erythromycin, and midazolam, have been developed and evaluated, but no single test has gained widespread clinical use to adjust dosage regimens for drugs in patients with hepatic dysfunction. The semi-quantitative Child-Pugh score is frequently used to assess the severity of liver function impairment, but only offers the clinician rough guidance for dosage adjustment because it lacks the sensitivity to quantitate the specific ability of the liver to metabolize individual drugs. The recommendations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA) to study the effect of liver disease on the pharmacokinetics of drugs under development is clearly aimed at generating, if possible, specific dosage recommendations for patients with hepatic dysfunction. However, the limitations of the Child-Pugh score are acknowledged, and further research is needed to develop more sensitive liver function tests to guide drug dosage adjustment in patients with hepatic dysfunction.     

Pharmacokinetics and dosage adjustment in patients with renal dysfunction

Introduction  Chronic kidney disease is a common, progressive illness that is becoming a global public health problem. In patients with kidney dysfunction, the renal excretion of parent drug and/or its metabolites will be impaired, leading to their excessive accumulation in the body. In addition, the plasma protein binding of drugs may be significantly reduced, which in turn could influence the pharmacokinetic processes of distribution and elimination. The activity of several drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters has been shown to be impaired in chronic renal failure. In patients with end-stage renal disease, dialysis techniques such as hemodialysis and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis may remove drugs from the body, necessitating dosage adjustment. Methods  Inappropriate dosing in patients with renal dysfunction can cause toxicity or ineffective therapy. Therefore, the normal dosage regimen of a drug may have to be adjusted in a patient with renal dysfunction. Dosage adjustment is based on the remaining kidney function, most often estimated on the basis of the patient's glomerular filtration rate (GFR) estimated by the Cockroft–Gault formula. Net renal excretion of drug is a combination of three processes: glomerular filtration, tubular secretion and tubular reabsorption. Therefore, dosage adjustment based on GFR may not always be appropriate and a re-evaluation of markers of renal function may be required. Discussion  According to EMEA and FDA guidelines, a pharmacokinetic study should be carried out during the development phase of a new drug that is likely to be used in patients with renal dysfunction and whose pharmacokinetics are likely to be significantly altered in these patients. This study should be carried out in carefully selected subjects with varying degrees of renal dysfunction. In addition to this two-stage pharmacokinetic approach, a population PK/PD study in patients participating in phase II/phase III clinical trials can also be used to assess the impact of renal dysfunction on the drug's pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Conclusion  In conclusion, renal dysfunction affects more that just the renal handling of drugs and/or active drug metabolites. Even when the dosage adjustment recommended for patients with renal dysfunction are carefully followed, adverse drug reactions remain common.     

The single dose pharmacokinetics of ribavirin in subjects with chronic liver disease

AIMS: The primary objective of this study was to describe the single dose pharmacokinetics of ribavirin in subjects with normal liver function and those with various degrees of stable chronic liver disease. Additionally this study assessed the safety and tolerability of ribavirin in this population. METHODS: Single oral 600 mg doses of ribavirin were administered to healthy male and female volunteers (n = 6) and patients with stable chronic liver disease (n = 17), in a parallel group study. Pharmacokinetic sampling and tolerability assessments were performed up to 168 h post dose. RESULTS: Single oral doses of 600 mg ribavirin were well tolerated by healthy volunteers and patients with varying degrees of hepatic dysfunction. Although mean Cmax increased with the severity of hepatic dysfunction, there was no change in extent of absorption or renal clearance of ribavirin. CONCLUSIONS: There are no pharmacokinetic reasons for initial dose adjustment of ribavirin in patients with hepatic dysfunction.     

Pregnancy and renal failure: the case for application of dosage guidelines.

Pregnancies in women with renal disease, undergoing dialysis treatment or with kidney transplants are increasingly observed. Serious problems with drug dose adjustment may arise in pregnant women with renal impairment. This review gives a practical overview on the risks of drug use during gestation, the recommended drugs of choice (e.g. methyldopa, cyclosporin), and provides some proposals for dosage adjustments in pregnant women with renal impairment. In normal pregnancy, the glomerular filtration rate and plasma volume increase, whereas plasma protein binding and liver function may be impaired. An increase in dosage is needed for cyclosporin and for methadone because of increased hepatic clearance. The dosage of erythropoetin must be increased because of lower potency in pregnant women. Little more is known on the impact of gestation on drug dose, since pharmacokinetic studies are rarely done in pregnant women. The dosages of magnesium, lithium and morphine must be reduced in renal impairment. Dose adjustment to renal function is critical and is essential for anti-infective agents (e.g. ceftazidime, ganciclovir). Basing drug dose on estimated creatinine clearance might be the most practical solution in pregnant women with renal impairment.     

Dose adjustment in patients with liver disease.

Unfortunately, there is no endogenous marker for hepatic clearance that can be used as a guide for drug dosing. In order to predict the kinetic behaviour of drugs in cirrhotic patients, agents can be grouped according to their extent of hepatic extraction. For drugs with a high hepatic extraction (low bioavailability in healthy subjects), bioavailability increases and hepatic clearance decreases in cirrhotic patients. If such drugs are administered orally to cirrhotic patients, their initial dose has to be reduced according to hepatic extraction. Furthermore, their maintenance dose has to be adapted irrespective of the route of administration, if possible, according to kinetic studies in cirrhotic patients. For drugs with a low hepatic extraction, bioavailability is not affected by liver disease, but hepatic clearance may be affected. For such drugs, only the maintenance dose has to be reduced, according to the estimated decrease in hepatic drug metabolism. For drugs with an intermediate hepatic extraction, initial oral doses should be chosen in the low range of normal in cirrhotic patients and maintenance doses should be reduced as for high extraction drugs. In cholestatic patients, the clearance of drugs with predominant biliary elimination may be impaired. Guidelines for dose reduction in cholestasis exist for many antineoplastic drugs, but are mostly lacking for other drugs with biliary elimination. Dose adaptation of such drugs in cholestatic patients is, therefore, difficult and has to be performed according to pharmacological effect and/or toxicity. Importantly, the dose of drugs with predominant renal elimination may also have to be adapted in patients with liver disease. Cirrhotic patients often have impaired renal function, despite a normal serum creatinine level. In cirrhotic patients, creatinine clearance should, therefore, be measured or estimated to gain a guideline for the dosing of drugs with predominant renal elimination. Since the creatinine clearance tends to overestimate glomerular filtration in cirrhotic patients, the dose of a given drug may still be too high after adaptation to creatinine clearance. Therefore, the clinical monitoring of pharmacological effects and toxicity of such drugs is important. Besides the mentioned kinetic changes, the dynamics of some drugs is also altered in cirrhotic patients. Examples include opiates, benzodiazepines, NSAIDs and diuretics. Such drugs may exhibit unusual adverse effects that clinicians should be aware of for their safe use. However, it is important to realise that the recommendations for dose adaptation remain general and cannot replace accurate clinical monitoring of patients with liver disease treated with critical drugs.     

The pharmacokinetics of enalapril in patients with compensated liver cirrhosis.

The possibility of an impaired hepatic de-esterification of enalapril to enalaprilat due to hepatic dysfunction was assessed in seven patients with compensated liver cirrhosis and 10 normal control subjects. The peak serum concentration and time to the peak serum concentration of enalaprilat, as well as the suppression of serum angiotensin converting enzyme activity, following a single oral dose of enalapril maleate (10 mg) were not different in the two groups. The elimination half-life of enalaprilat was related to renal function. The results suggest that hepatic biotransformation of the drug may not be disturbed in a clinically significant manner in patients with moderate hepatic dysfunction due to compensated liver cirrhosis.     

Antiarrhythmics: elimination and dosage considerations in hepatic impairment

Many drugs, including most antiarrhythmics (some of which are now of limited clinical use) are eliminated by the hepatic route. If liver function is impaired, it can be anticipated that hepatic clearance will be delayed, which can lead to more pronounced drug accumulation with multiple dosing. Consequently, the potential risks of adverse events could be increased, especially as antiarrhythmics have a narrow therapeutic index. The present review summarises the available pharmacokinetic data on the most popular antiarrhythmic drugs to identify the enzymes involved in the metabolism of the various agents and confirm whether liver disease affects their elimination. Despite long usage of some of these drugs (e.g. amiodarone, diltiazem, disopyramide, procainamide and quinidine), surprisingly few data are available in patients with liver disease, making it difficult to give recommendations for dosage adjustment. In contrast, for carvedilol, lidocaine (lignocaine), propafenone and verapamil, sufficient clinical studies have been performed. For these drugs, a marked decrease in systemic and/or oral clearance and significant prolongation of the elimination half-life have been documented, which should be counteracted by a 2- to 3-fold reduction of the dosage in patients with moderate to severe liver cirrhosis. For sotalol, disopyramide and procainamide, renal clearance contributes considerably to overall elimination, suggesting that dosage reductions are probably unnecessary in patients with liver disease as long as renal function is normal. The hepatically eliminated antiarrhythmics are metabolised mainly by different cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes (e.g. CYP3A4, CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2D6) and partly also by conjugations. As the extent of impairment in clearance is in the same range for all of these agents, it could be assumed that they have a common vulnerability and that, consequently, hepatic dysfunction will affect CYP-mediated phase I pathways in a similar fashion. The severity of liver disease has been estimated clinically by the validated Pugh score, and functionally by calculation of the clearance of probe drugs (e.g. antipyrine). Both approaches can be helpful in estimating/predicting impairments in drug metabolism, including antiarrhythmics. In conclusion, hepatic impairment decreases the elimination of many antiarrhythmics to such an extent that dosage reductions are highly recommended in such populations, especially in patients with cirrhosis.     

Dose adaptation of antineoplastic drugs in patients with liver disease.

Dose adaptation for liver disease is important in patients treated with antineoplastic drugs because of the high prevalence of impaired liver function in this population and the dose-dependent, frequently serious adverse effects of these drugs. We classified the antineoplastic drugs marketed in Switzerland at the end of 2004 according to their bioavailability and/or hepatic extraction to predict their kinetic behaviour in patients with decreased liver function. This prediction was compared with kinetic studies carried out with these drugs in patients with liver disease. The studies were identified by a structured, computer-based literature search. Of the 69 drugs identified, 52 had a predominant extrarenal (in most cases hepatic) metabolism and/or excretion. For 49 drugs, hepatic extraction could be calculated and/or bioavailability data were available, allowing classification according to hepatic extraction. For 18 drugs, kinetic studies have been reported in patients with impaired liver function, with the findings generally resulting in quantitative recommendations for adaptation of the dosage. In particular, recommendations are precise for 16 drugs excreted by the bile (e.g. doxorubicin and derivatives and vinca alkaloids). Validation studies comparing such recommendations with kinetics and/or dynamics of antineoplastic drugs in patients with decreased liver function have not been published.We conclude that there are currently not enough data for safe use of cyctostatics in patients with liver disease. Pharmaceutical companies should be urged to provide kinetic data (especially hepatic extraction data) for the classification of such drugs and to conduct kinetic studies for drugs with primarily hepatic metabolism in patients with impaired liver function to allow quantitative advice to be given for dose adaptation.