Selective protein adsorption modulates platelet adhesion and activation to oligo(ethylene glycol)-terminated self-assembled monolayers with C18 ligands

This study focuses on the selective binding of albumin to a nanostructured surfaces to inhibit other blood proteins from adsorbing thereby reducing platelet adhesion and activation. Tetra (ethylene-glycol)-terminated self-assembled monolayers (EG4 SAMs) with different percentages of C18 ligands on the surface were characterized by contact angle measurements, X-ray photoelectron microscopy, infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy, and ellipsometry. A specific surface (2.5% C18 SAM) was found to be selective for human serum albumin (HSA) in the presence of both albumin and fibrinogen (HFG). The importance of this concentration of C18 ligands was stressed in reversibility studies since that surface exchanged almost all the preadsorbed HSA by HSA in solution, but not by HFG. The effect of protein adsorption in the subsequent adhesion and activation of platelets was studied by pre-immersing the surfaces in albumin and plasma before contact with platelets. Scanning electron microscopy and glutaraldehyde induced fluorescence technique images showed that as surfaces got more hydrophobic due to the immobilization of C18 ligands, the number of adherent platelets increased and their morphology changed from round to fully spread. Pre-immersion in HSA led to an 80% decrease in platelet adhesion and reduction of activation. Pre-immersion in 1% plasma was only relevant in 2.5% C18 SAMs since this was the only surface that demonstrated less adhesion of platelets comparing with buffer pre-immersion. However, they still adsorb more platelets then when HSA was preadsorbed. This was confirmed in competition studies between HSA and plasma that suggested that other plasma proteins were also adsorbing to this surface.     

Protein interactions with oligo(ethylene glycol) (OEG) self-assembled monolayers: OEG stability, surface packing density and protein adsorption

We present a study of protein adsorption on oligo(ethylene glycol) (OEG) self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) at a range of OEG surface densities. OEG SAMs were formed in mixed ethanol and water solutions at different assembly temperatures to adjust the packing density of EG4-SAMs. These SAMs were characterized using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Fibrinogen adsorption on these surfaces was measured by a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor at different temperatures. This work is aimed at addressing three important issues for protein-OEG interactions, i.e., (i) OEG stability, (ii) the correlation between OEG surface densities and surface non-fouling properties, and (iii) protein adsorption on OEG surfaces at different temperatures.     

Protein interactions with oligo(ethylene glycol) (OEG) self-assembled monolayers: OEG stability,surface packing density and protein adsorption

We present a study of protein adsorption on oligo(ethylene glycol) (OEG) self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) at a range of OEG surface densities. OEG SAMs were formed in mixed ethanol and water solutions at different assembly temperatures to adjust the packing density of EG₄-SAMs. These SAMs were characterized using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Fibrinogen adsorption on these surfaces was measured by a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor at different temperatures. This work is aimed at addressing three important issues for protein–OEG interactions, i.e., (i) OEG stability, (ii) the correlation between OEG surface densities and surface non-fouling properties, and (iii) protein adsorption on OEG surfaces at different temperatures.     

Protein adsorption to oligo(ethylene glycol) self-assembled monolayers: experiments with fibrinogen, heparinized plasma, and serum

Low protein adsorption is believed advantageous for blood-contacting materials and ethylene glycols (EG)-based polymeric compounds are often attached to surfaces for this purpose. In the present study, the adsorption of fibrinogen, serum, and plasma were studied by ellipsometry on a series of well-defined oligo(EG) terminated alkane-thiols self-assembled on gold. The layers were prepared with compounds of the general structure HS-(CH2)15-CONH-EGn, where n = 2, 4, and 6. Methoxy-terminated tri(EG) undecanethiol and hydroxyl-terminated hexadecanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) were used as references. The results clearly demonstrate that the adsorption depends on the experimental conditions with small amounts of fibrinogen adsorbing from a single protein solution, but larger amounts of proteins from serum and plasma. The adsorption of fibrinogen and blood plasma decreased with an increasing number of EG repeats and was temperature-dependent. Significantly less serum adsorbed to methoxy tri(EG) than to hexa(EG) and more proteins remained on the latter surface after incubation in a sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution, indicating a looser protein binding to the methoxy-terminated surface. All surfaces adsorbed complement factor 3 (C3) from serum and plasma, although no surface-mediated complement activation was observed. The present study points to the importance of a careful choice of the protein model system before general statements regarding the protein repellant properties of potential surfaces can be made.     

Protein adsorption to oligo(ethylene glycol) self-assembled monolayers: Experiments with fibrinogen,heparinized plasma,and serum

Low protein adsorption is believed advantageous for blood-contacting materials and ethylene glycols (EG)-based polymeric compounds are often attached to surfaces for this purpose. In the present study, the adsorption of fibrinogen, serum, and plasma were studied by ellipsometry on a series of well-defined oligo(EG) terminated alkane-thiols self-assembled on gold. The layers were prepared with compounds of the general structure HS-(CH₂)₁₅-CONH-EG_n, where n = 2, 4, and 6. Methoxy-terminated tri(EG) undecanethiol and hydroxyl-terminated hexadecanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) were used as references. The results clearly demonstrate that the adsorption depends on the experimental conditions with small amounts of fibrinogen adsorbing from a single protein solution, but larger amounts of proteins from serum and plasma. The adsorption of fibrinogen and blood plasma decreased with an increasing number of EG repeats and was temperature-dependent. Significantly less serum adsorbed to methoxy tri(EG) than to hexa(EG) and more proteins remained on the latter surface after incubation in a sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution, indicating a looser protein binding to the methoxy-terminated surface. All surfaces adsorbed complement factor 3 (C3) from serum and plasma, although no surfacemediated complement activation was observed. The present study points to the importance of a careful choice of the protein model system before general statements regarding the protein repellant properties of potential surfaces can be made.     

Photocalorimetric monitoring of the polymerization of an oligo(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate in oligo(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ethers

The course of the 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyldiphenylphosphine oxide initiated free-radical photopolymerization of an oligo(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate ((EG)₂₃DMA) in two oligo(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ethers ((EG)₃DME and (EG)₁₁DME) in the presence of LiCF₃SO₃ has been studied by means of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), FT-Raman spectroscopy and sol-gel analysis. In order to obtain the kinetical data of the fast photopolymerization, the photo-DSC curves were corrected numerically. Both, the initial and the maximum polymerization rates were found to depend on the concentration of the monomer and the photo-initiator with the order 2,5 and 0,2, respectively. Upon addition of LiCF₃SO₃, the polymerization rate is increased. Grafting reactions from (EG)₁₁DME were observed resulting in its partially linking to the poly(methacrylate) network.     

Hydrogen bonding in monodisperse and polydisperse oligo(ethylene glycol)s

Infrared spectra of monodisperse (DP ≤ 35) and polydisperse (average DP ≤ 45) oligo(ethylene glycol)s are recorded for melts and for solids over a temperature range (+70°C to -80°C). Spectra in the hydroxyl stretching region show that the solid monodisperse oligomers with DP ≤ 25 at temperatures well below the melting point have highly ordered lamella end surfaces with hydroxyl groups from adjacent lamellae hydrogen bonded in long chains, whereas the solid polydisperse oligomers of comparable chain length have disordered lamella end surfaces with hydroxyl-ether as well as hydroxyl-hydroxyl hydrogen bonding.     

Inflammatory responses and cell adhesion to self-assembled monolayers of alkanethiolates on gold

The acute inflammatory response and the adhesion of cells to self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of well-defined surface chemistry was studied in vivo using a rodent air-pouch model of inflammation. SAMs with three different terminal functional groups (OH, COOH and CH3) were implanted in subcutaneous air pouches induced in BALB/c mice. After 24 h, inflammatory cells were recovered from the air pouches and the implants were removed and prepared for observation by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The implants coated with OH and CH3, were found to cause the highest recruitment of inflammatory cells into the subcutaneous pouches. Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) leukocytes predominated over mononuclear cells in inflammatory exudates of SAMs-coated implants, the opposite being found in uncoated implants (controls). CH3-coated implants induced the highest number of inflammatory cells and also the largest percentage of PMNs seen in the subcutaneous pouches. Control and OH-covered implants presented the higher densities of attached inflammatory cells detected by SEM. In contrast, the CH3-coated implants showed a very low density of cells adherent to the implant surface. We conclude that the chemical nature and the degree of hydrophobicity of the surface of implants modulate both the local acute inflammatory reaction and the adhesion of leukocytes.     

Preparation and antibacterial activity of silver-loaded poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) brush

Herein, we report on a robust approach to fabricate antibacterial nanocomposite coating simply by immersing poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (POEGMA) brush into a silver perchlorate solution without using any external reducing agents. The POEGMA brush of 48.3?nm in thickness is prepared via surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization method. Field-emission scanning electron microscope and Raman measurements indicate that silver nanoparticles of 14?～?25?nm in diameter are successfully embedded into the POEGMA brush. Antibacterial activities of the resultant silver-loaded POEGMA brushes against both Gram-negative Escherichia coli and Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus are measured by zone of inhibition and colony-counting methods, respectively. The results show that the silver-loaded POEGMA coatings exhibit enhanced antibacterial efficiency compared to bare POEGMA brush. In order to elucidate their antibacterial mechanism, silver release behaviors of these silver-loaded POEGMA brushes are monitored via inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.     

Degradative properties and cytocompatibility of a mixed-mode hydrogel containing oligo[poly(ethylene glycol)fumarate] and poly(ethylene glycol)dithiol

Our laboratory is currently exploring synthetic oligo(poly(ethylene glycol)fumarate) (OPF)-based biomaterials as a means to deliver fibroblasts to promote regeneration of central/partial defects in tendons and ligaments. In order to further modulate the swelling and degradative characteristics of OPF-based hydrogels, OPF crosslinking via a radically initiated, mixed-mode reaction involving poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-diacrylate and PEG-dithiol was investigated. Results demonstrate that mixed-mode hydrogels containing OPF can be formed and that the presence of 20 wt.% PEG-dithiol increases swelling and decreases degradation time vs. 10 wt.% PEG-dithiol and non-thiol-containing hydrogels (20% thiol fold swelling 28.7+/-0.8; 10% thiol fold swelling 11.6+/-1.4; non-thiol 8.7+/-0.2; 20% thiol-containing hydrogels degrade within 15 days in vitro). After encapsulation, tendon/ligament fibroblasts remained largely viable over 8 days of static culture. While the presence of PEG-dithiol did not significantly affect cellularity or collagen production within the constructs over this time period, image analysis revealed that the 20% PEG-dithiol gels did appear to promote cell clustering, with greater values for aggregate area observed by day 8. These experiments suggest that mixed-mode OPF-based hydrogels may provide an interesting alternative as a cell carrier for engineering a variety of soft orthopedic tissues, particularly for applications when it is important to encourage cell-cell contact.     

Effect of poly(ethylene glycol) molecular weight on tensile and swelling properties of oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering.

This study was designed to determine the effect of changes in poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) molecular weight on swelling and mechanical properties of hydrogels made from a novel polymer, oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) (OPF), recently developed in our laboratory. Properties of hydrogels made from OPF with initial PEG molecular weights of 860, 3900, and 9300 were examined. The PEG 3900 formulation had a tensile modulus of 23.1 +/- 12.4 kPa and percent elongation at fracture of 53.2 +/- 13.7%; the PEG 9300 formulation had similar tensile properties (modulus: 16.5 +/- 4.6 kPa, elongation: 76.0 +/- 26.4%). However, the PEG 860 gels had a significantly higher modulus (89.5 +/- 50.7 kPa) and a significantly smaller percent elongation at fracture (30.1 +/- 6.4%), when compared with other formulations. Additionally, there were significant differences in percent swelling between each of the formulations. Molecular weight between crosslinks (M(c)) and mesh size were calculated for each OPF formulation. M(c) increased from 2010 +/- 116 g/mol with PEG 860 to 6250 +/- 280 g/mol with PEG 9300. Mesh size calculations showed a similar trend (76 +/- 2 A for PEG 860 to 160 +/- 6 A for PEG 9300). It was also found that these hydrogels could be laminated if a second layer was added before the first had completely crosslinked. Mechanical testing of these laminated gels revealed that the presence of an interfacial area did not significantly alter their tensile properties. These results suggest that the material properties of OPF-based hydrogels can be altered by changing the molecular weight of PEG used in synthesis and that multilayered OPF hydrogel constructs can be produced, with each layer having distinct mechanical properties.     

Chainlength dependence of thermodynamic properties of poly(ethylene glycol)

Investigations of ten poly(ethylene glycol) samples with molecular weights of 62 to 20 000 showed that inverse gas chromatography is a sensitive tool to determine molecular weight dependent variations of thermodynamic parameters like specific retention volume, activity coefficient, and Flory-Huggins interaction parameter. As mobile phase 27 probe molecules with various functional groups could be characterized with respect to their solubility behaviour for the oligomers and polymers due to the ability to form hydrogen bonds. By application of the factor analysis technique two factors could be extracted from the data matrix of retention values. The best fit of the corresponding simple structure was achieved with a combination of group concentrations of the terminal OH-group and the repeating ether unit of the poly(ethylene glycol)s.     

Functionalization of poly(ethylene glycol) and monomethoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)

Simple methods are described for the substitution of poly(ethylene glycol) and monomethoxy-poly(ethylene glycol) substitution. Affinity ligands, coenzymes, or enzymes can be covalently attached to the substitution product or they can be used as liquid ionexchangers.     

Facilitating the mineralization of oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) hydrogel by incorporation of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles

Exploring strategies to induce the mineralization of hydrogels is an important step toward the development of hydrogel-based materials for bone regeneration. In the current study, the effect of incorporating hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles on the mineralization capacity of an inert poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based hydrogel was investigated. HA nanoparticles were either directly loaded into oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) (OPF) hydrogel or loaded into commonly used gelatin microsphere porogens that were subsequently integrated in the OPF matrix. Mineralization of composites after immersion of the samples in simulated body fluid up to 28 days was assessed. In contrast to the blank OPF hydrogel, the HA-containing constructs strongly mineralized such that the average rate of calcium uptake by the material was enhanced by orders of magnitude. The mineral formed was observed to be apatitic and needle shaped. The presented method allows modification of inert PEG-based hydrogels into bioactive biomaterials for applications in bone regeneration.     

Effect of drying history on swelling properties and cell attachment to oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) hydrogels for guided tissue regeneration applications

In these experiments, the effects of the drying history of hydrogels made from a novel polymer, oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) (OPF) with two different poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) molecular weights (approximately 920 (1K) and 9110 (10K) g/mol), were investigated. The hydrogels were either formed, dried and then swelled, representing what may occur in the case of a pre-formed membrane for guided tissue regeneration, or were formed and swelled immediately, as may occur with an injectable material for such applications. Subsequently, swelling properties, sol fraction and polymer network structure (as indicated by differential scanning calorimetry), as well as attachment of human dermal fibroblasts to these hydrogels at 4 and 24 h was examined. It was found that drying before swelling caused a significant reduction in final fold swelling of OPF hydrogels, regardless of OPF formulation or method of drying (air-dried or vacuum-dried) (e.g. PEG 10K swollen first: 13.94 ± 0.35 vs. vacuum first: 6.53 ± 0.12; PEG 1K swollen first: 8.99 ± 0.47 vs. vacuum first: 2.26 ± 0.08). This decreased swelling correlated to significantly higher cell attachment (% seeded) to these hydrogels at 24 h (PEG 10K vacuum first: 21.1 ± 4.7% vs. swollen first: 7.1 ± 5.5%; PEG 1K vacuum first: 58.2 ± 2% vs. swollen first: 7.4 ± 2.2%). LIVE/DEAD staining followed by microscopic analysis revealed attached cells were viable, yet rounded, and that, in the case of the PEG 1K dried-first samples, undulations in the surface visible in the hydrated state may have affected cell adhesion. Regardless of treatment, all hydrogels showed significantly less cell attachment than the tissue culture polystyrene control after 24 h (104.9 ± 4.4%). These results suggest that, by altering the PEG molecular weight used in synthesis, OPF hydrogels may be tailored to produce desired swelling properties and reduce non-specific cell adhesion for either injectable or pre-formed applications, thus providing a potential alternative material for use in guided tissue regeneration procedures.     

Effect of drying history on swelling properties and cell attachment to oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) hydrogels for guided tissue regeneration applications

In these experiments, the effects of the drying history of hydrogels made from a novel polymer, oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) (OPF) with two different poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) molecular weights (approximately 920 (1K) and 9110 (10K) g/mol), were investigated. The hydrogels were either formed, dried and then swelled, representing what may occur in the case of a pre-formed membrane for guided tissue regeneration, or were formed and swelled immediately, as may occur with an injectable material for such applications. Subsequently, swelling properties, sol fraction and polymer network structure (as indicated by differential scanning calorimetry), as well as attachment of human dermal fibroblasts to these hydrogels at 4 and 24 h was examined. It was found that drying before swelling caused a significant reduction in final fold swelling of OPF hydrogels, regardless of OPF formulation or method of drying (air-dried or vacuum-dried) (e.g. PEG 10K swollen first: 13.94 +/- 0.35 vs. vacuum first: 6.53 +/- 0.12; PEG 1K swollen first: 8.99 +/- 0.47 vs. vacuum first: 2.26 +/- 0.08). This decreased swelling correlated to significantly higher cell attachment (% seeded) to these hydrogels at 24 h (PEG 10K vacuum first: 21.1 +/- 4.7% vs. swollen first: 7.1 +/- 5.5%; PEG 1K vacuum first: 58.2 +/- 2% vs. swollen first: 7.4 +/- 2.2%). LIVE/DEAD staining followed by microscopic analysis revealed attached cells were viable, yet rounded, and that, in the case of the PEG 1K dried-first samples, undulations in the surface visible in the hydrated state may have affected cell adhesion. Regardless of treatment, all hydrogels showed significantly less cell attachment than the tissue culture polystyrene control after 24 h (104.9 +/- 4.4%). These results suggest that, by altering the PEG molecular weight used in synthesis, OPF hydrogels may be tailored to produce desired swelling properties and reduce non-specific cell adhesion for either injectable or pre-formed applications, thus providing a potential alternative material for use in guided tissue regeneration procedures.     

Protein adsorption and human osteoblast-like cell attachment and growth on alkylthiol on gold self-assembled monolayers.

Protein adsorption and growth of primary human osteoblasts on self-assembled monolayers of alkylthiols on gold (SAMs) with carboxylic acid and hydroxyl and methyl termini were investigated. Single-component SAMs and SAMs patterned by photolithographic techniques were used. Cell growth on patterned SAMs demonstrated preferences for one pattern region in all combinations of alkylthiols, with the hierarchical preference COOH > OH > CH(3). Patterned SAMs and immunochemistry were used to investigate adsorption of fibronectin and albumin with respect to different alkylthiol termini. Fibronectin adsorption from both pure solution and serum containing cell culture medium (SDMEM) followed the sequence COOH > OH > CH(3). Albumin adsorption from pure solution followed the sequence OH > COOH > CH(3); from SDMEM the sequence was CH(3) > OH > COOH. Cell attachment to SAMs with the above termini, after preadsorption with fibronectin, albumin, or mixtures of fibronectin and albumin, was measured. Attachment was maximal on COOH-terminated SAMs precoated with fibronectin. Attachment to COOH was significantly reduced only when fibronectin was omitted from the protein preadsorption solution. On OH and CH(3) SAMs increasing the proportion of albumin in the solution was sufficient to significantly reduce cell attachment. The distribution vinculin and the integrins alpha(5)beta(1) and alpha(v)beta(3) indicated that focal contact formation by cells varied with alkylthiol termini in the following sequence: COOH > OH > CH(3).     

Effect of poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(oligo (ethylene glycol) methacrylate) amphiphilic block copolymers on dermal fibroblast viability and proliferation

Abstract

In this work, well-defined poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b-poly(oligo (ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PDMS-b-POEGMA) amphiphilic block copolymers were synthesized and their effect on human dermal fibroblast were investigated. Anionic ring opening polymerization (ROP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) were used to synthesis the block copolymers. The molecular weight of synthesized copolymers ranged from 1000 to 2300?Da by changing the number of both PDMS and POEGMA units. It was found that the copolymer having low molecular weight decreased the fibroblast viability and proliferation by inducing apoptosis. It was proved by flow cytometry and TUNEL assay that human dermal fibroblast experienced apoptosis after exposure to synthesized amphiphilic copolymers. The results of this work suggest the use of PDMS-b-POEGMA amphiphilic copolymers with low molecular weight for hypertrophic scars remediation.     

Patterning protein molecules on poly(ethylene glycol) coated Si(111)

We demonstrate spatially localized immobilization of protein molecules on high-density poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) coated Si(111). Patterns of HO- and CH3O-terminated PEG regions are formed on silicon surfaces based on soft lithography techniques and an efficient reaction between alcohol functional groups and chlorine-terminated silicon. Activation of the HO-terminated PEG brush is achieved via either partial oxidation to form aldehyde groups or via attachment of efficient leaving groups. Protein molecules are covalently immobilized to these activated regions on the PEG/Si surface.