Standardised methods--tools for mutual understanding and integration into global society.

The paper presents basic concepts, terms, and their definitions in the field of standardisation--standard, international standard, national standard, testing standard, test report, and proficiency testing according to the ISO/IEC Guide 2:1996. The paper also explains the role of voluntary standards in the process of technical harmonisation. National adoption and implementation of international testing standards facilitates testing, comparison of test reports, and any proficiency testing, and can promote their global recognition. This can be recognised as a step toward creation of the global society. The Croatian "approach" to these activities is given attention in the light of globalisation and efforts made in establishment of Croatian standardisation infrastructure.     

An assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of current veterinary systems in the developing world

The changes that veterinary services have undergone in the developing world over the last two decades are expected to continue and result in the further privatisation of selected tasks, the decentralisation of decision-making and a move towards more focus on public goods service delivery by State veterinary units. At the same time, global food consumption patterns are changing in numerous ways, which will certainly affect veterinary services delivery systems. These changes include a trend towards increasing globalisation, rapidly escalating consumer demand for animal protein, intensification of livestock production into larger units and growth of the trade of livestock and livestock products. Intensification of livestock production into larger units and global trade will increase the challenges resulting from the resurgence of serious animal diseases, food safety hazards and veterinary public health-related problems. Facing and managing these challenges raises issues related to animal health delivery systems and national policies that will have to be addressed. Strengthening the capacity of State veterinary units to respond to regulatory responsibilities dictated by national laws and international World Trade Organization and OIE (World organisation for animal health) health standards will be at the centre of animal health policies in most developing countries. Creating an environment which facilitates privatised service delivery and supports subcontracting is likely to contribute to improving economic efficiency and providing wider access to veterinary services. Equally important is the issue of professional development, which must be addressed by refocusing veterinary curricula and improving professional standards. The profession will then be in a better position to serve the needs of increasing numbers of consumers.     

Monitoring drinking water,sanitation, and hygiene in non-household settings: Priorities for policy and practice

Inadequate drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) in non-household settings, such as schools, health care facilities, and workplaces impacts the health, education, welfare, and productivity of populations, particularly in low and middle-income countries. There is limited knowledge on the status of WaSH in such settings. To address this gap, we reviewed international standards, international and national actors, and monitoring initiatives; developed the first typology of non-household settings; and assessed the viability of monitoring. Based on setting characteristics, non-household settings include six types: schools, health care facilities, workplaces, temporary use settings, mass gatherings, and dislocated populations. To-date national governments and international actors have focused monitoring of non-household settings on schools and health care facilities with comparatively little attention given to other settings such as workplaces and markets. Nationally representative facility surveys and national management information systems are the primary monitoring mechanisms. Data suggest that WaSH coverage is generally poor and often lower than in corresponding household settings. Definitions, indicators, and data sources are underdeveloped and not always comparable between countries. While not all countries monitor non-household settings, examples are available from countries on most continents suggesting that systematic monitoring is achievable. Monitoring WaSH in schools and health care facilities is most viable. Monitoring WaSH in other non-household settings would be viable with: technical support from local and national actors in addition to international organizations such as WHO and UNICEF; national prioritization through policy and financing; and including WaSH indicators into monitoring initiatives to improve cost-effectiveness. International consultations on targets and indicators for global monitoring of WaSH post-2015 identified non-household settings as a priority. National and international monitoring systems will be important to better understand status, trends, to identify priorities and target resources accordingly, and to improve accountability for progressive improvements in WaSH in non-household settings.     

Ensuring good governance to address emerging and re-emerging animal disease threats: supporting the veterinary services of developing countries to meet OIE international standards on quality

As an effect of increased globalisation, animal diseases, in particular those transmissible to man, have an immediate global economic and social impact. This fact, dramatically illustrated by the current avian influenza epizootic in South-East Asia and Eastern Europe, clearly demonstrates the crucial importance of the national Veterinary Services (VS) for the prevention, early detection and response for the efficient control of animal diseases. Complying with this mission for the VS presupposes the existence of appropriate governance and legislation and of an official system to control their quality and reliability- an obvious weakness in many developing and in transition countries. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has therefore developed a project aiming at strengthening the VS in those countries facing the greatest animal health threats and to bring them into line with OIE international standards already adopted by the same countries. Based on the evaluation of the VS and subsequent actions at the global, regional and national levels, the project will have a significant beneficial impact on the targeted countries as well as the international community as a whole, not only in the fields of agriculture, food security and production, and food safety, but also for the local and global prevention of emerging and re-emerging diseases of veterinary and public health importance. The project will be implemented in strong collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization. The actions proposed must be considered eligible for the concept of International Public Good.     

Globalisation and public health

At the dawn of the 21st century, globalisation is a word that has become a part of everyday communication in all corners of the world. It is a concept that for some holds the promise of a new and brighter future, while for others it represents a threat that needs to be confronted and counteracted. In the area of public health, a wide range of claims have been made about the various impacts, both positive and negative, that can be attributed to globalisation. In the ever expanding literature on globalisation and health, it has become apparent that considerable confusion is emerging in both the ways that terminology is applied and concepts are defined. The determinants of health are increasingly multisectoral, and in tackling these challenges it is necessary to take a multidisciplinary approach that includes policy analyses in such areas as trade, environment, defence/security, foreign policy, and international law. In assembling the terms for this glossary, we have attempted to demonstrate the richness of the globalisation and public health debate, and in so doing have selected some of the core terms that require definition. We hope that this glossary will help to clarify this interesting and challenging area, and will also serve as a useful entry point to this new debate in public health.     

Indian nutritionists and international nutritional standards: Concepts and controversies

This paper explores how Indian nutritional scientists and policy planners have influenced the formulation and interpretation of standards of nutritional status. It draws on diverse published evidence by Indian scientists on three controversial issues: (1) the validity and applicability of international nutritional standards to India; (2) the so-called protein gap; and (3) the 'small but healthy' hypothesis. The paper concludes that Indian scientists have had considerable influence in international nutrition and food policy debates. Moreover, their positions seem to have been motivated more by nationalistic and scientific, rather than Indian ethnomedical cultural concerns. The paper provides one example of how Third World scientists and science have influenced a major area of scientific policy debate. The roles of cultural and political-economic factors in the construction of national and international nutritional standards are highlighted.     

Electromagnetic field standards in Central and Eastern European countries: current state and stipulations for international harmonization

Electromagnetic field standards in the West are based on well-established acute biological effects that could be considered as signaling a potentially adverse health effect. The specific absorption rate, which is proportional to the tissue heating (thermal effects), represents the basic restriction of exposure to Radio-Frequency (RF) fields. On the other hand, Eastern European standards are designed to protect from potential non-thermal effects that might be caused by chronic exposure to very low intensities, where a so-called "power load" (a product of field intensity and duration of exposure) represents the basic limitation. Thus, electromagnetic field standards in Eastern European countries differ considerably from those which are proposed by the International Commission of Non-ionizing Radiation Protection and the Standards Coordinating Committee 28 of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. In the present paper, the strategies for development of exposure limit values in electromagnetic fields standards currently in force in Eastern and Central European countries are discussed. Some differences as well as similarities of the national health and safety standards and the main obstacles to harmonization of these standards with those being established by Western national and international organizations and agencies are presented.     

International standards related to the classification and deregulation of radioactive waste

Although solid radioactive waste management is mainly a national concern, there are some aspects that have international implications. One important example is the decommissioning of nuclear facilities, which results in the release of materials that could be reused and recycled. It is possible that these materials could enter international trade, especially if the material is a metal. It is clearly desirable, therefore, to have appropriate international standards to help regulate trade. This paper describes recent international developments relating to the establishment of radiological criteria for the release of materials from regulatory control (clearance). There have already been some experiences of clearance and the transfer of recycled materials within Europe, and this paper reviews that experience. It also discusses recent developments in relation to the international classification of radioactive waste.     

International standards in mitigating trade risks

This paper describes the role of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), as a science-based and democratic standard-setting organisation that provides guidance on preventing the spread of animal diseases, including zoonoses, in international trade. The World Trade Organization is identified as the international institution with the legal power to encourage adherence to international standards and mediate trade disputes. The importance of assuring good governance and the credibility of national Veterinary Services through a process of official certification is identified as an essential component in the safety of trade. Private-public partnerships and the evolution of responsibilities are also identified as essential for the implementation of health guarantees such as compartmentalisation. The rapid emergence of private standards is described as a potential complement to the implementation of sanitary standards, as long as they are applied globally and in support of the OIE standards. Ultimately, the biggest challenge is for the international community to create the incentives and generate the political will for fair trade and for the universal recognition and application of the established international sanitary standards.     

Organisation of Veterinary Services in the developing countries of West Africa

The Veterinary Services in West Africa focused on animal health and production activities, which up until the beginning of the 1990s, were exclusively their responsibility. They were supported by many projects, conducted with notable successes. Veterinary public health activities were considered to be less of a priority because the major objective was improving productivity and because the concept of food safety was perceived by stakeholders to be much less important. The major challenges and issues that the weakened Veterinary Services will have to face are complying with the requirements of the World Trade Organization, negotiating new economic partnership agreements and dealing with the consequences of the implementation of structural adjustment programmes in the agricultural sector. The reorganisation of these Services is therefore taking place in the context of the globalisation of health problems, and in a trading framework that requires the application of the current international standards and regulations. Veterinary Services and their governments will have to meet these challenges by initiating discussions that lead to effective operational structures that can implement public health measures, satisfy the expectations of consumers and partner countries and withstand assessment by other countries. However, such reform depends upon several factors, such as a demonstration of political will, the development of an approach based on regional economic unions, and the indispensable support of financial backers. To add to the debate, the author offers recommendations and guidelines on the institutional framework, veterinary personnel and equipment and material needs. Creating effective Veterinary Services that have efficient operational structures and procedures is an ongoing process; how long this process takes depends on the ability of Veterinary Services to respond to the various challenges. Underlying these challenges and issues, in this region of the world as elsewhere, is the possibility of official Veterinary Services losing their credibility with international trade partners if all the procedures governing international trade are not followed.     

Norms and standards for radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in Latin America: guidelines for exposure limits and measurement protocols]

New technologies that use electromagnetic fields (EMF) have proved greatly beneficial to humankind. EMF are used in a variety of ways in the transmission of electrical energy and in telecommunications, industry, and medicine. However, some studies have shown that EMF could be detrimental to one's health, having found an association between exposure to EMF on the one hand, and the incidence of some types of cancer as well as behavioral changes on the other. Although so far there is no concrete proof that exposure to low-intensity EMF is hazardous, researchers continue to study the issue in an attempt to reach a consensus opinion and to establish safety standards. While developing and establishing such norms and standards have traditionally been the responsibility of international specialized agencies, national health authorities should take an active part in this process. Currently the Pan American Health Organization is promoting scientific research, often in the form of epidemiologic studies, in order to propose uniform norms and standards. Some Latin American countries, including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela, have already enacted incomplete or partial legislation based on recommended international standards. This article describes the norms established in Latin America and the particular approach taken by each country.     

Nutrient-Level Evaluation of Meals Provided on the Government-Funded School Lunch Program in New Zealand

Approximately 1 in 6 children in New Zealand are living in households facing poverty and 14% of the population is food insecure. The Ka Ora, Ka Ako|Healthy School Lunches program aims to reduce food insecurity by providing access to a nutritious lunch every school day. This study analyzed the nutritional content of Ka Ora, Ka Ako meals and compared them to national and international standards. Meals were selected at random from approved menus. The suppliers covered by the 302 meals analyzed provide 161,699 students with a lunch (74.9% of students on the program). The meals were analyzed using Foodworks 10 nutrient analysis software. The nutrient content was compared against the New Zealand/Australia Nutrient Reference Values (NRVs) and to nutrient-level standards for international school lunch programs. A total of 77.5% of nutrients analyzed exceeded 30% of the recommended daily intakes. Protein, vitamin A and folate met the NRV targets and a majority of the international standards (55/57). Energy, calcium, and iron were low compared to NRVs and international standards (meeting 2/76 standards). Carbohydrates were low compared to international standards. The findings have been used to inform the development of revised nutrition standards for the program, which will be released in 2022.     

Adapting veterinary infrastructures to meet the challenges of globalisation and the requirements of the World Trade Organization Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

To maximise the benefits of globalisation, countries and their stakeholders must become familiar with and adhere to the rights and obligations set out by the World Trade Organization under the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. Furthermore, for trade in animals and animal products, they must adhere to the standards, guidelines and recommendations established by the OIE (World organisation for animal health), which also encourages participation of countries in the standard-setting process. Only after implementing these requirements and strengthening veterinary infrastructures and surveillance and monitoring systems, will countries be able to fully benefit from the new international trade rules.     

Occupational hygiene science and its application in occupational health policy, at home and abroad.

This paper examines the role of occupational hygiene in the overall framework of occupational health. It draws attention to the unique combination of required individual science subjects, and to the way in which occupational hygiene science contributes to the practice of occupational hygiene in the real world. It focuses in particular on occupational exposure standards. The paper provides, as an example, the specific case of occupational aerosol exposures. It is here that scientific research has made a notable impact on standards and led to a considerable degree of international harmonization. Finally, some broader insights into occupational exposure standards are given, based on experience gained during visits to a number of contrasting countries. The similarities and differences between the various national approaches help indicate what is generic in how standards are set. Such insights provide a basis for further international harmonization in the future. It is concluded that occupational exposure standards appear to be most effectively applied in countries where there are strong occupational hygiene cultures.     

Radiation safety standards and their application: international policies and current issues

This paper briefly describes the current policies of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and the International Commission on Radiological Protection and how these policies are converted into international radiation safety standards by the International Atomic Energy Agency, which is the only global organization-within the United Nations family of international agencies-with a statutory mandate not only to establish such standards but also to provide for their application. It also summarizes the current status of the established corpus of such international standards, and of it foreseeable evolution, as well as of legally binding undertakings by countries around the world that are linked to these standards. Moreover, this paper also reviews some major current global issues related to the application of international standards, including the following: strengthening of national infrastructures for radiation safety, including technical cooperation programs for assisting developing countries; occupational radiation safety challenges, including the protection of pregnant workers and their unborn children, dealing with working environments with high natural radiation levels, and occupational attributability of health effects (probability of occupational causation); restricting discharges of radioactive substances into the environment: reviewing current international policies vis-a-vis the growing concern on the radiation protection of the "environment;" radiological protection of patients undergoing radiodiagnostic and radiotherapeutic procedures: the current International Action Plan; safety and security of radiation sources: post-11 September developments; preparedness and response to radiation emergencies: enhancing the international network; safe transport of radioactive materials: new apprehensions; safety of radioactive waste management: concerns and connections with radiation protection; and radioactive residues remaining after the termination of activities: radiation protection response to the forthcoming wave of decommissioning of installations with radioactive materials. The ultimate aim of this paper is to encourage information exchange, cooperation, and collaboration within the radiation protection professional community. In particular, the paper tries to facilitate consolidation of the growing international regime on radiation safety, including the expansion of legally binding undertakings by countries, the strengthening of the current corpus of international radiation safety standards, and the development of international provisions for ensuring the proper worldwide application of these standards, such as a system of international appraisals by peer review.     

Health and safety management systems: liability or asset?

Health and safety management systems have a background in theory and in various interests among employers and workplace health and safety professionals. These have resulted in a number of national systems emanating from national standard-writing centres and from employers' organizations. In some cases these systems have been recognized as national standards. The contenders for an international standard have been the International Organization of Standardization (ISO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO). The quality and environmental management systems of ISO indicate what an ISO health and safety management standard would look like. The ILO Guidelines on Safety and Health Management Systems, by contrast, are stringent, specific and potentially effective in improving health and safety performance in the workplace.     

我国科技期刊当前标准体系现状分析及国际相关进展

【目的】 对国内外近年来科技期刊标准体系及相关进展进行梳理,结合我国国家标准(GB)现状,分析现存问题。【方法】 检索2010—2021年国内外权威机构有关期刊部分的最新标准,针对我国科技期刊国家标准执行现状分析不足,并提出对策和建议。【结果】 国际组织制定的科技期刊标准呈不断细化、专业、高效、精准的趋势。我国科技期刊国家标准仍存在标准的制定不够精准,标准的更新不够与时俱进,标准的执行强度不够,标准不统一,缺少针对汉语种特异性强的国家标准,标准映射存在障碍等问题。针对以上问题,需要从以下几个方面入手解决:进行系统的顶层设计,广泛采集基础资料进行整合、更新现有国家标准,增加新型国家标准,制定特异性强的科技期刊国家标准等。【结论】 比对国际组织发布的标准,我国现存国家标准不够精细和完善,科技期刊标准的完善还有大量的基础工作需要完成。     

Toward a Global Definition of Professionalism for Nutrition and Dietetics Education: A Systematic Review of the Literature

BackgroundProfessionalism of health care practitioners is central to safe and ethical health care, and forms part of the trust that the public places in health care practitioners. Lapses in professionalism in health care present considerable challenges and can have serious consequences and outcomes. Teaching, learning, and assessing professionalism is an important component of nutrition and dietetics education. There is scant peer-reviewed published research related to professionalism in nutrition and dietetics. Providing a definition of professionalism will support progress in curriculum planning and design, teaching, learning and assessment of students, and ongoing professional development of educators and practitioners.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to conceptualize and define professionalism for the purpose of teaching nutrition and dietetics.DesignThis study included a critical systematic literature review of original research and a targeted and systematic search of national and international dietetics competency standards, exploring the concept and definitions of professionalism in nutrition and dietetics. Competency standards were chosen as an additional focus in the systematic literature search, as they are the key framework documents that guide curriculum development and education standards internationally. Thematic analysis was used to synthesize extracted data and an inductive, interpretivist approach was then applied in conceptualizing a definition of professionalism.ResultsSeven studies and six national and international sets of competency standards were included in the literature review. Four major themes conceptualizing a definition of professionalism for nutrition and dietetics were identified from the integration of the original research and targeted gray literature reviews: 1) personal attributes; 2) interpersonal communication; 3) approach to practice; and 4) commitment to lifelong learning.ConclusionsDefining professionalism for nutrition and dietetics supports progress toward shared understandings, building trust, and assisting in dietetics education and practice. It can be used to support and extend teaching, learning, and assessment of professionalism.     

Establishing a national biobank. Biobanking infrastructure initiative in Slovakia - Public policy,legal and ethical issues

Resulting from a multi-stakeholder initiative in 2017, a rapid process is underway in Slovakia with the aim of establishing a national system of biobanks by 2020. A combined top-down and bottom-up approach is being followed under the leadership of the Ministry of Health Institute for Research and Development. Relevant national stakeholders, with international expert partner institutions providing additional know how and networking, have been successfully involved since the very beginning of this initiative. State-of-the-art biobanking facilities are to be built in order to accommodate the Slovak National Biobank in the city of Martin (Central Slovakia) and the other major biobank in the city of Košice (Eastern Slovakia), while existing structures – future local biobanks – will be upgraded to achieve complete technical and logistical compatibility. This should enable full compliance of the Slovakia's biobanking system with the appropriate international ethical, legal and professional standards. A related legislative activity has been started, aimed at a comprehensive updating of the existing Slovak biomedical research and health care legislation, to provide for the necessary legal certainty. After successful completion of the Initiative, the Slovakia's biomedical research infrastructure is to be better set for supporting excellent domestic research and development efforts, as well as for its involvement in high-quality international research collaborations and partnerships.