Molecular pathogenesis of oligodendroglial tumors

Based on their histopathological appearances, most diffusely infiltrative gliomas can be classified either as astrocytic tumors (As), pure oligodendroglial tumors (Os) or mixed oligoastrocytic tumors (OAs). The latter two may be grouped together as oligodendroglial tumors (OTs). The distinction between As and OTs is important because of the more favorable clinical behavior of OTs. Unfortunately, the histopathological delineation of OAs, Os and As can be difficult because of vague and subjective histopathological criteria. Over the last decade, the knowledge on the molecular genetic background of OTs has drastically increased. This review provides an overview of molecular genetic aberrations in OTs and discusses the pathobiological and clinical significance of these aberrations. In contrast to As, OTs frequently show frequent loss of heterozygosity on chromosome arms 1p and 19q. Since these aberrations are significantly correlated with clinically relevant parameters, such as prognosis and chemosensitivity, and given the difficulties in histopathological typing and grading of glial tumors, genetic testing should be included in routine glioma diagnostics. It is to be expected that the identification of the relevant tumor suppressor genes located on 1p and 19q will lead to more refined genetic tests for OTs. Furthermore, as microarray technology is rapidly increasing, it is likely that clinically relevant markers for OTs will be identified on other chromosomes and need to be included into routine glioma diagnostics as well.     

Intratumoral homogeneity of MGMT promoter hypermethylation as demonstrated in serial stereotactic specimens from anaplastic astrocytomas and glioblastomas

Hypermethylation of the DNA repair gene O(6)-methyl-guanine DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) has been linked to prolonged survival in glioblastoma patients treated with alkylating agents. It was aimed to analyze prospectively whether the MGMT status of malignant gliomas could be determined from small-sized stereotactic biopsies (maximum volume: 1 mm(3)). Special attention was directed towards the intratumoral distribution of the MGMT promoter methylation, the MGMT protein expression and potential correlations between both. Twenty-five adult patients were included (20 patients with primary World Health Organisation (WHO) Grade III or IV malignant gliomas, 5 patients with secondary malignant gliomas). About 2-4 biopsy specimens per tumor were collected from different sites within the tumor. Promoter methylation of the MGMT gene was assessed by methylation-specific PCR (MSP) and sodium bisulfite sequencing in each of the collected specimens (overall number of specimens: 69). Both methods were validated for application in small-sized tissue samples (1 mm(3)). The MGMT protein expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. The overall MGMT promoter methylation rate was 30% in the de novo group and 80% in the tumor progression group. The success rates of MSP and sequencing were 100% and 80%, respectively. Sequence analysis and MSP exhibited 100% concordant findings. No differences in MGMT promoter methylation were detected between the different samples of each individual tumor in 24 of 25 patients. One false negative result was obtained due to the contamination of the biopsy specimen by necrotic tissue. Tissue samples taken from different sites of each individual tumor (13 tumors investigated) exhibited equal or highly similar MGMT protein expression. No correlation between MGMT protein expression and MGMT promoter methylation was observed. The MGMT promoter methylation status of malignant gliomas can be reliably determined from small-sized stereotactic biopsies. The methylation profile, as defined by MSP and sodium bisulfite sequencing, constitutes a homogeneous marker throughout malignant gliomas. The lack of correlation between MGMT status and MGMT protein expression needs further evaluation.     

Combining MGMT promoter pyrosequencing and protein expression to optimize prognosis stratification in glioblastoma

Pyrosequencing (PSQ) represents the golden standard for MGMT promoter status determination. Binary interpretation of results based on the threshold from the average of several CpGs tested would neglect the existence of the “gray zone”. How to define the gray zone and reclassify patients in this subgroup remains to be elucidated. A consecutive cohort of 312 primary glioblastoma patients were enrolled. CpGs 74-81 in the promoter region of MGMT were tested by PSQ and the protein expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Receiver operating characteristic curves were constructed to calculate the area under the curves (AUC). Kaplan-Meier plots were used to estimate the survival rate of patients compared by the log-rank test. The optimal threshold of each individual CpG differed from 5% to 11%. Patients could be separated into the hypomethylated subgroup (all CpGs tested below the corresponding optimal thresholds, n = 126, 40.4%), hypermethylated subgroup (all CpGs tested above the corresponding optimal thresholds, n = 108, 34.6%), and the gray zone subgroup (remaining patients, n = 78, 25.0%). Patients in the gray zone harbored an intermediate prognosis. The IHC score instead of the average methylation levels could successfully predict the prognosis for the gray zone (AUC for overall survival, 0.653 and 0.519, respectively). Combining PSQ and IHC significantly improved the efficiency of survival prediction (AUC: 0.662, 0.648, and 0.720 for PSQ, IHC, and combined, respectively). Immunohistochemistry is a robust method to predict prognosis for patients in the gray zone defined by PSQ. Combining PSQ and IHC could significantly improve the predictive ability for clinical outcomes.     

Frequent MGMT (0(6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase) hypermethylation in long-term survivors of glioblastoma: a single institution experience

Background

The aim of this retrospective study was to analyse the MGMT (0⁶-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase) promoter methylation status in long-term surviving (≥ 3 years) patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM).

Methods

The methylation status of the MGMT promoter was determined by bisulfite modification of the DNA and subsequent methylation-specific polymerase-chain-reaction (MSP). DNA was extracted from routinely formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tumour tissue samples.

Results

MSP yielded interpretable results in only 14 of 33 (42%) long-term surviving patients with GBM. A methylated band was seen in 3 of 14, methylated as well as unmethylated bands in 8 of 14 and an only unmethylated band in 3 of 14 patients, thus, yielding MGMT promoter methylation in 11 of 14 patients. The two groups of patients with methylated and unmethylated MGMT promoter status were too small to draw any firm statistical conclusions.

Conclusions

Long-term surviving patients with GBM have very frequently intratumoural MGMT promoter methylation. This phenomenon discriminates long-term survivors from a non-selected group of patients with GBM. The standardization of the MSP for the determination of the MGMT promoter methylation status seems to be necessary in order to make this methodology a more reliable one.     

NSCLC患者血浆p16和MGMT基因甲基化检测及临床意义

目的：检测非小细胞肺癌（non—small cell lung cancer，NSCLC）患者外周血血浆中p16基因、O^6-甲基乌嘌呤-DNA甲基转移酶（O^6-methylguanine—DNA methyhransferase，MGMT）基因启动子的甲基化状态，探讨p16、MGMT基因启动子的异常甲基化在NSCLC筛查及早期诊断中的意义。方法：利用巢式甲基化特异性聚合酶链反应法检测NSCLC患者外周血血浆p16、MGMT基因启动子的甲基化状态。结果：65例NSCLC血浆样品中分别发现19例（29．23％）p16基因启动子异常甲基化和16例（24．62％）MGMT基因启动子异常甲基化，45例正常对照血浆组未检测到p16、MGMT基因启动子的异常甲基化（P〈0．05），血浆中两基因甲基化检出率与NSCLC的分型及临床分期无明显相关性（P〉0．05）。结论：利用巢式甲基化特异性PCR法检测外周血血浆中p16、MGMT基因启动子的甲基化，可为NSCLC的筛查、早期诊断及预后判断提供有价值的信息。     

MGMT在人脑胶质瘤中的表达及其意义

目的：探讨MGMT的表达水平与脑胶质瘤的关系。方法：53例脑胶质瘤标本分为4组，经免疫组化染色后，观察MGMT的表达部位和程度。结果：MGMT在脑胶质瘤中的表达呈棕黄色或棕褐色粗大颗粒，定位于胞浆内，阳性细胞散在或局灶性，染色强度及分布不均、缺乏明显规律。不同病理分级脑胶质瘤的MGMT阳性表达率无显著性差异（P=0．335）；MGMT表达阳性与MGMT表达阴性的脑胶质瘤患者的平均年龄组间无显著性差异（P=0．457）；男性与女性脑胶质瘤患者的MGMT阳性表达率之问无显著性差异（P=0．519）。结论：MGMT的表达水平与脑胶质瘤的恶性度、患者的年龄及性别无明显相关性，仅根据肿瘤恶性度而使用烷化剂进行化疗是不科学的，测定MGMT在脑胶质瘤中的表达水平有助于评估人脑胶质瘤细胞对烷化剂的耐药程度。     

Induction of MGMT expression is associated with temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma xenografts

Temozolomide (TMZ)-based therapy is the standard of care for patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), and resistance to this drug in GBM is modulated by the DNA repair protein O(6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT). Expression of MGMT is silenced by promoter methylation in approximately half of GBM tumors, and clinical studies have shown that elevated MGMT protein levels or lack of MGMT promoter methylation is associated with TMZ resistance in some, but not all, GBM tumors. In this study, the relationship between MGMT protein expression and tumor response to TMZ was evaluated in four GBM xenograft lines that had been established from patient specimens and maintained by serial subcutaneous passaging in nude mice. Three MGMT unmethylated tumors displayed elevated basal MGMT protein expression, but only two of these were resistant to TMZ therapy (tumors GBM43 and GBM44), while the other (GBM14) displayed a level of TMZ sensitivity that was similar in extent to that seen in a single MGMT hypermethylated line (GBM12). In tissue culture and animal studies, TMZ treatment resulted in robust and prolonged induction of MGMT expression in the resistant GBM43 and GBM44 xenograft lines, while MGMT induction was blunted and abbreviated in GBM14. Consistent with a functional significance of MGMT induction, treatment of GBM43 with a protracted low-dose TMZ regimen was significantly less effective than a shorter high-dose regimen, while survival for GBM14 was improved with the protracted dosing regimen. In conclusion, MGMT expression is dynamically regulated in some MGMT nonmethylated tumors, and in these tumors, protracted dosing regimens may not be effective.     

The MGMT promoter SNP rs16906252 is a risk factor for MGMT methylation in glioblastoma and is predictive of response to temozolomide

BackgroundPromoter methylation of O⁶-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) is an important predictive biomarker in glioblastoma. The T variant of the MGMT promoter-enhancer single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP; rs16906252) has been associated with the presence of MGMT promoter methylation in other cancers. We examined the association of the T allele of rs16906252 with glioblastoma development, tumor MGMT methylation, MGMT protein expression, and survival outcomes.MethodsTwo independent temozolomide-treated glioblastoma cohorts—one Australian (Australian Genomics and Clinical Outcomes of Glioma, n = 163) and the other American (University of California Los Angeles/Kaiser Permanente Los Angeles, n = 159)—were studied. Allelic bisulphite sequencing was used to determine if methylation was specific to the T allele. Additionally, we compared the incidence of the T allele between glioblastoma cases and matched controls to assess whether it was a risk factor for developing MGMT methylated glioblastoma.ResultsCarriage of the T allele of the rs16906252 SNP was associated with both MGMT methylation and low MGMT protein expression and predicted significantly longer survival in temozolomide-treated patients with both MGMT methylated and nonmethylated glioblastoma. Methylation was linked to the T allele, inferring that the T variant plays a key role in the acquisition of MGMT methylation. Carriage of the T allele was associated with a significantly elevated risk of developing glioblastoma (adjusted odds ratio, 1.96; P = .013), increasing further when glioblastoma was classified by the presence of MGMT methylation (adjusted odds ratio, 2.86; P = .001).ConclusionsThe T allele of the rs16906252 SNP is a key determinant in the acquisition of MGMT methylation in glioblastoma. Temozolomide-treated patients with the rs16906252 T genotype have better survival, irrespective of tumor methylation status.     

肺癌组织细胞中CHFR基因表达水平及其启动子甲基化状态

目的：探讨CHFR（checkpoint with FHA and ring finger）基因表达水平及其启动子CpG岛甲基化状态与肺癌发生发展的关系。方法：实时定量PCR法检测CHFRmRNA在45例肺癌组织、23例癌旁组织与去甲基化剂5-氮杂-2′-脱氧胞苷处理前后A549细胞株中的表达,同时用甲基化特异性PCR检测CHFR启动子CpG岛甲基化状态。结果：CHFRmRNA在癌旁组织中全部表达,在肺癌组织中表达缺失率为15．56％（7／45）,且表达量低于正常肺组织,F=9．156,P〈0．01;但在不同年龄、性别、肿瘤大小、恶性程度和肿瘤分类中的差异无统计学意义,P〉0．05。CHFR基因启动子在肺癌组织中发生甲基化的频率为22．22％（10／45）,在癌旁组织未发生甲基化,χ^2=5．992,P〈0．05。10例启动子区甲基化的肺癌标本中,7例同时伴有mRNA表达缺失。结论：CHFR启动子甲基化可在肺癌发生和发展中起一定作用。     

MGMT activity,promoter methylation and immunohistochemistry of pretreatment and recurrent malignant gliomas: a comparative study on astrocytoma and glioblastoma

The DNA repair protein O⁶‐methylguanine‐DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) is a key player in tumor cell resistance. Promoter methylation, MGMT activity and immunohistochemistry are used for determining the MGMT status. However, it is unclear whether MGMT promoter methylation correlates with MGMT activity and whether MGMT promoter methylation of the pretreatment tumor predicts the MGMT status of recurrences. To address these questions, we determined MGMT activity promoter methylation and immunoreactivity in pretreatment and recurrent glioblastomas (GB, WHO Grade IV), and in astrocytomas (WHO Grade III). We show that GB that were promoter methylated display a range of 0–62 fmol/mg MGMT and tumors that were nonmethylated 0–423 fmol/mg protein. For astrocytomas, promoter‐methylated samples displayed 0–28 fmol/mg and, nonmethylated samples, 23–107 fmol/mg. No correlation was found between the intensity of promoter methylation and MGMT activity. Given a threshold level of 30 fmol/mg of protein, we found a correlation between promoter methylation and no/low MGMT activity in 82.4% of the tumors. This high correlation level was only observed when tumors were excluded showing a hemimethylated promoter (20%). Therefore, classification of hemimethylated tumors remains questionable. Further, we show that 39.1% of pretreatment GB and 5.3% of recurrences were promoter methylated, which is in line with the observed increase of MGMT activity in recurrences. Although individual exceptions were found, the data show an overall correlation between promoter methylation and lack/low MGMT activity in GB and astrocytomas. We also show that promoter methylation assay is superior over immunohistochemistry in determining the MGMT status defined by a given MGMT activity level.     

Analysis of molecular pathways in sporadic neuroendocrine tumors of the gastro-entero-pancreatic system

Little is known about the molecular pathogenesis of neuroendocrine tumors (NET) of the gastro-entero-pancreatic (GEP) system. We analyzed genetic and epigenetic alterations as well as the CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP). The study comprised 118 well-differentiated fore- and mid-gut GEP-NET from 71 patients. In addition to loss of heterozygosity (LOH), microsatellite instability (MSI) and the methylation status of various tumor associated genes were examined. The expression profile of p16, APC and MENIN was investigated by immunohistochemistry. None of the tumors was highly microsatellite unstable, LOH was found in 22.2%. Significant differences in promoter hypermethylation were identified in the RUNX3 and the O(6)-MGMT genes. We found a significant loss of p16 expression in insulinomas (p = 0.05) and functional NET (p = 0.01), respectively. APC was expressed less in gastrinomas (p = 0.01) and functional GEP-NET (p = 0.05) vs. nonfunctional tumors. MENIN expression was reduced in pancreatic vs. extrapancreatic NET (p = 0.008) and in insulinomas vs. nonfunctional GEP-NET (p = 0.019) and NET associated with the carcinoid syndrome (p = 0.029). Further CIMP and a Ki-67 index >10% showed a close correlation. Outcome analysis of 19 patients showed a better survival for CIMP-negative patients. The analyses identified significant genetic and epigenetic alterations in well-differentiated fore- and mid-gut NET. CIMP, similar to Ki-67, might turn out to be of prognostic relevance.     

MGMT gene promoter methylation correlates with tolerance of temozolomide treatment in melanoma but not with clinical outcome

Background:

Despite limited clinical efficacy, treatment with dacarbazine or temozolomide (TMZ) remains the standard therapy for metastatic melanoma. In glioblastoma, promoter methylation of the counteracting DNA repair enzyme O⁶-methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferase (MGMT) correlates with survival of patients exposed to TMZ in combination with radiotherapy. For melanoma, data are limited and controversial.

Methods:

Biopsy samples from 122 patients with metastatic melanoma being treated with TMZ in two multicenter studies of the Dermatologic Cooperative Oncology Group were investigated for MGMT promoter methylation. We used the COBRA (combined bisulphite restriction analysis) technique to determine aberrant methylation of CpG islands in small amounts of genomic DNA isolated from paraffin-embedded tissue sections. To detect aberrant methylation, bisulphite-treated DNA was amplified by PCR, enzyme restricted, and visualised by gel electrophoresis.

Results:

Correlation with clinical data from 117 evaluable patients in a best-response evaluation indicated no statistically significant association between MGMT promoter methylation status and response. A methylated MGMT promoter was observed in 34.8% of responders and 23.4% of non-responders (P=0.29). In addition, no survival advantage for patients with a methylated MGMT promoter was detectable (P=0.79). Interestingly, we found a significant correlation between MGMT methylation and tolerance of therapy. Patients with a methylated MGMT promoter had more severe adverse events, requiring more TMZ dose reductions or discontinuations (P=0.007; OR 2.7 (95% CI: 1.32–5.7)). Analysis of MGMT promoter methylation comparing primaries and different metastases over the clinical course revealed no statistical difference (P=0.49).

Conclusions:

In advanced melanoma MGMT promoter, methylation correlates with tolerance of therapy, but not with clinical outcome.     

MGMT promoter methylation testing to predict overall survival in people with glioblastoma treated with temozolomide: a comprehensive meta-analysis based on a Cochrane Systematic Review

BackgroundThe DNA repair protein O⁶-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) causes resistance of tumor cells to alkylating agents. It is a predictive biomarker in high-grade gliomas treated with temozolomide, however, there is no consensus on which test method, methylation sites, and cutoff values to use.MethodsWe performed a Cochrane Review to examine studies using different techniques to measure MGMT and predict survival in glioblastoma patients treated with temozolomide. Eligible longitudinal studies included (i) adults with glioblastoma treated with temozolomide with or without radiotherapy, or surgery; (ii) where MGMT status was determined in tumor tissue, and assessed by 1 or more technique; and (iii) where overall survival was an outcome parameter, with sufficient information to estimate hazard ratios (HRs). Two or more methods were compared in 32 independent cohorts with 3474 patients.ResultsMethylation-specific PCR (MSP) and pyrosequencing (PSQ) techniques were more prognostic than immunohistochemistry for MGMT protein, and PSQ is a slightly better predictor than MSP.ConclusionsWe cannot draw strong conclusions about use of frozen tissue vs formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded in MSP and PSQ. Also, our meta-analysis does not provide strong evidence about the best CpG sites or threshold. MSP has been studied mainly for CpG sites 76-80 and 84-87 and PSQ at CpG sites ranging from 72 to 95. A cutoff threshold of 9% for CpG sites 74-78 performed better than higher thresholds of 28% or 29% in 2 of the 3 good-quality studies. About 190 studies were identified presenting HRs from survival analysis in patients in which MGMT methylation was measured by 1 technique only.     

Frequent promoter hypermethylation of the O6-Methylguanine-DNA Methyltransferase (MGMT) gene in testicular cancer

Testicular germ cell tumours are classified into two major histological subgroups, seminomas and nonseminomas. All tumours display several recurrent chromosomal aberrations, but few target genes have been identified. Previous studies have shown that genome-wide hypermethylation of CpG islands is significantly more prevalent in nonseminomas than in seminomas. We have studied two potential target genes in testicular cancer. A series of 70 tumours were analysed for methylation of CpG sites in the O(6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) gene promoter, and in exon 1alpha of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A gene (CDKN2A). In addition, eight microsatellite markers within and flanking these genes at chromosome arms 10q and 9p, respectively, were analysed for allelic imbalances. Allele alterations were frequently seen at 9p loci (47 out of 70, 67%), but none of the tumours (none out of 55) showed methylation of CDKN2A. On the other hand, a high frequency of MGMT promoter methylation (32 out of 69, 46%) was found, as well as allelic imbalances at 10q markers (50 out of 70, 71%). A significantly higher methylation frequency was found in nonseminomas (24 out of 35, 69%) compared to seminomas (eight out of 33, 24%) (P=0.0003, Fisher's exact test). Immunohistochemical analysis of the MGMT protein in a subgroup (n=20) of the testicular tumours supported the hypothesis of gene silencing being the functional consequence of the promoter methylation. In summary, our data suggest that inactivation of MGMT contributes to development of nonseminomatous testicular cancer.     

卵巢癌组织中Vasohibin基因表达与启动子区域甲基化的关系

目的探讨卵巢上皮性肿瘤中Vaso-hibin基因mRNA表达与临床特征及其启动子甲基化的关系。方法用RT-PCR检测10例良性卵巢上皮性肿瘤、8例交界性卵巢上皮性肿瘤及30例卵巢癌组织中VasohibinmRNA表达;用甲基化特异聚合酶链反应方法(MSP)检测Vasohibin启动子甲基化。结果各组标本中都有VasohibinmRNA表达,3组Vasohib-in表达的相对值良性卵巢上皮性肿瘤为0.65±0.11,交界性卵巢上皮性肿瘤为0.47±0.13,卵巢癌为0.34±0.14。卵巢癌组织中Vasohibin的表达量较交界性卵巢上皮性肿瘤组织显著降低,t=2.479,P=0.029;交界性卵巢上皮性肿瘤组织的表达量较良性卵巢上皮性肿瘤显著下降,t=3.198,P=0.006。在卵巢癌组织中,Vasohibin的表达与不同临床分期、不同分化程度以及有无淋巴结转移无关。良性卵巢上皮性肿瘤中未发现Vasohibin基因启动子甲基化;交界性卵巢上皮性肿瘤中2例发生启动子甲基化,卵巢癌中11例发生启动子甲基化,甲基化率36.7%。卵巢癌中启动子甲基化组织较未甲基化组织VasohibinmRNA表达显著降低,t=4.671,P=0.000。结论Vasohibin与卵巢癌发生存在明显相关性。Vasohibin启动子甲基化与其mRNA表达抑制密切相关,可能是Vasohibin在卵巢癌中低表达的最主要因素之一。