术前预后营养指数对结直肠癌根治术后生存的预测价值研究

目的探讨术前预后营养指数（PNI）对结直肠癌根治术后患者预后的评估价值。 方法回顾性分析2011年1月至2014年1月在蚌埠医学院第一附属医院行结直肠癌根治术的182例结直肠癌患者临床资料和随访资料。根据入院首次采血检查结果，计算PNI、中性粒细胞-淋巴细胞比（NLR）和淋巴细胞-单核细胞比（LMR）。采用受试者工作特征曲线（receiver operating characteristic curve, ROC）曲线获取PNI、NLR和LMR指标最佳截断值。采用Kaplan-Meier生存曲线进行生存分析，Cox比例风险模型分析术前PNI与患者预后的关联性。 结果患者术前PNI为22.03~71.06（47.62±9.88），最佳截断值为45.61。高PNI组（≥45.61，115例）患者的5年总生存率明显高于低PNI组（<45.61，67例）（χ2=19.706，P<0.001）。术前PNI与体质指数、肿瘤大小、T分期、N分期、癌胚抗原、CA19-9、NLR和LMR有关。PNI是影响结直肠癌根治术后5年生存的独立危险因素（HR=1.835，95% CI：1.067~3.157，P=0.028）。 结论术前PNI是影响结直肠癌患者根治术后生存的独立危险因素，对结直肠癌的预后评估有一定的临床应用价值。     

结直肠癌切除术病人嗜神经侵袭情况及其与预后的相关性研究

目的 探讨结直肠癌切除术病人嗜神经侵袭(PNI)情况及其与预后的相关性。方法 前瞻性选取2018年9月～2019年8月我院行结直肠癌切除术的病人200例，根据是否发生PNI分为PNI组和无PNI组，比较两组病人一般资料、临床特征等，记录所有病人术后总生存时间(OS)以评估预后情况，采用Kaplan-Meier法分析不同特征病人预后。采用Cox回归分析结直肠癌病人切除术后预后影响因素。结果 200例病人中，39例出现PNI为PNI组，其余161例为无PNI组；PNI组肿瘤直径较非PNI组大，T分期T3～T4比例高、转移淋巴结比例高、术后辅助治疗比例较非PNI组多，差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);Kaplan-Meier曲线显示，病理分期T3～T4病人3年总生存期显著低于病理分期T1～T2期者(Log-rankχ²=3.936,P=0.047);PNI阳性者3年生存率低于PNI阴性者(Log-rankχ²=10.629,P<0.001);术后辅助治疗3年生存率显著高于术后未辅助治疗者(Log-rankχ²=8....     

术前白蛋白与纤维蛋白原的比值对开腹结直肠癌根治术患者预后的预测价值

目的：通过分析术前白蛋白与纤维蛋白原的比值（A/F）与开腹结直肠癌根治术患者预后的关系,探讨A/F预测预后的价值。方法：回顾2016年1月至2018年12月于我院接受开腹结直肠癌根治术治疗的90例患者病历资料,整理患者临床病理特征及术前A/F水平;经受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线确定A/F最佳截点值（N）,≥N判断为A/F高表达,分析A/F高表达与患者临床病理特征的关系;通过Kaplan-Meier法分析患者生存状况,单因素、Logistic回归分析影响结直肠癌患者术后3年生存情况的危险因素。结果：ROC曲线显示,术前A/F评估结直肠癌患者术后生存时间的曲线下面积（AUC）为0.860(95%CI:0.780～0.939),最佳截点值为9.89。不同肿瘤直径、分化程度、TNM分期结直肠癌患者术前A/F表达情况差异显著,P <0.05。A/F高表达组术后3年生存率明显高于A/F低表达组,P <0.05。Logistic回归分析显示,年龄（≥60岁）、肿瘤直径（≥5cm）、肿瘤分化程度（低分化）、TNM分期（Ⅲ期）、A/F表达（低表达）均是影响结直肠癌患者术后3年生存情况的危险因...     

预后营养指数与结直肠癌伴急性肠穿孔一期切除并吻合后预后的相关性研究

目的 探讨预后营养指数（predictive nutritional index,PNI）能否通过术前营养和炎症状态预测结直肠癌伴急性肠穿孔病人的术后并发症及5年总生存率和无复发生存率。方法 回顾性分析2012年12月至2018年6月在北京朝阳医院普通外科住院的结直肠癌伴急性肠穿孔病例,其中接受根治性结直肠切除术并一期吻合者57例。统计病人的临床病理资料、术前PNI、术后并发症、术后生存及复发情况等;采用受试者操作特征曲线计算出病人的术前PNI截断值;采用logistic回归分析病人的PNI与术后并发症的相关性;采用Kaplan-Meier曲线分析病人的5年总生存期和无复发生存期。结果 结直肠癌伴急性肠穿孔病人的术前PNI截断值为32。低PNI组相对于高PNI组病人的年龄更大（P=0.028 5）、ASAⅢ～Ⅳ级者更多（P=0.014 7）、T4分期者更多（P=0.028 1）,而且术后吻合口漏发生率更高（P=0.031 4）、30 d死亡率更高（P=0.030 3）以及住院时间更长（P=0.024 2）。多因素分析表明低PNI是结直肠癌伴急性肠穿孔病人发生吻合口漏（OR=1.63, ...     

全身炎性反应与直肠癌术后生存率的相关分析

目的分析炎性反应预后评分(IPS)与直肠癌术后生存率的相关性。方法直肠癌根治术术后病人678例,收集病人入院后第2天外周静脉血血常规、肝功能等资料,依次计算出炎性反应评分——NLR、D-NLR、PLR、LMR、COP-NLR及PNI等指标,依据IPS依次计算出各自得分。以5年生存时间作为终点绘制IPS的实验对象作指征(ROC)曲线,以此作为研究对象,术前IPS预测5年生存率的最佳截点,并依据该临界值将病人分为高IPS组和低IPS组,比较高低两组直肠癌术后病人在手术方式、肿瘤TNM分期、肿瘤大小及形态、侵及深度、肿瘤距肛缘的距离等指标的关系。然后采用COX比例风险回归模型对组成IPS的各因素进行单因素和多因素分析。结果 IPS诊断死亡危险事件的受试者工作特征曲线下面积(ROC-AUX)为0.781,截点为2.5。根据2.5截点分为低IPS组、高IPS组。两组年龄分别为(59.1±11.9)岁、(59.5±9.8)岁。两组间TNM分期比较,差异有统计学意义。多因素COX风险回归模型显示男性、NLR、D-NLR、COP-NLR评分为危险因素,HR分别为1.489、4.027、2.208、2.188。LMR评分为保护性因素,HR为0.559。结论 IPS水平与直肠癌术后生存率相关,高IPS提示预后不良。     

手术切除直肠癌患者预后危险因素分析

目的探讨手术切除直肠癌患者预后的相关危险因素。方法回顾性分析286例直肠癌术后患者的临床资料,对比不同因素患者的5年生存率。结果单因素分析显示,不同性别、年龄患者5年生存率比较无统计学差异(P0.05),而不同病程、术前CEA水平、手术方式、肿瘤分化程度、肿瘤大小、肿瘤浸润深度、淋巴结转移个数、肿瘤临床分期患者的5年生存率比较差异具有统计学意义(P0.05);Logistic回归分析显示,术前CEA水平、肿瘤分化程度、淋巴结转移、肿瘤浸润深度以及肿瘤临床分期均为直肠癌术后患者预后不良的独立危险因素(P0.05)。结论术前CEA水平、肿瘤分化程度、淋巴结转移、肿瘤浸润深度以及肿瘤临床分期均为直肠癌术后患者预后不良的独立危险因素。因此,直肠癌的早期诊断及早期手术治疗对于改善患者预后、提高患者生活质量将具有重要意义。     

青年结直肠癌病人临床病理学特征及预后分析

目的比较青年与老年结直肠癌病人临床病理学特点的差异并探讨影响青年结直肠癌病人预后的因素。方法回顾性分析2012年1月至2016年12月中山大学附属第六医院收治的青年(诊断年龄40岁,398例)和老年(诊断年龄60~70岁,398例)结直肠癌病人临床病理资料的差异。通过术后随访了解病人的生存情况,随访截止时间为2017年12月。采用Kaplan-Meier法绘制生存曲线并计算存活率,采用Log-rank检验与Cox回归模型进行预后分析。结果青年组病人肿瘤家族史比例高(P0.001),TNM分期以Ⅲ、Ⅳ期为主(P=0.015),更倾向接受新辅助治疗(P0.001),血清白蛋白高(P0.001),术前贫血比例高(P=0.017),而术前癌胚抗原(CEA)阳性率及体重指数(BMI)较低(P值均0.001)。术后病理,青年组病人肿瘤体积较大(P0.001),浸润型肿瘤比例高(P=0.023),分化程度较低(P=0.003)且黏液腺癌的比例大(P0.001)。青年组与老年组的3年存活率分别为85.5%与85.6%。单因素及多因素预后分析均显示青年组与老年组总体存活率差异无统计学意义。青年结直肠癌病人预后多因素分析显示,TNM分期Ⅳ期(HR=10.85,95%CI 4.698~25.050,P0.001)及脉管癌栓阳性(HR=4.283,95%CI 1.956~9.378,P0.001)是影响青年结直肠癌病人预后的独立危险因素。结论青年与老年结直肠癌病人的临床及病理学特征存在差异,但总体存活率差异无统计学意义。TNM分期Ⅳ期及脉管癌栓阳性是影响青年结直肠癌病人预后的独立危险因素。     

Glasgow预后分数与结直肠癌近期疗效

目的探讨结直肠癌患者Glasgow预后分数（Glasgow prognostic score,GPS）与短期预后的关系。方法前瞻性纳入2009年4～6月期间经病理诊断为结直肠癌的住院患者。所有患者均于术前3d与术后1d测定血清C反应蛋白及白蛋白水平,并以此计算术前及术后的GPS分值,分析GPS与结直肠癌患者短期预后的关系。结果本研究共纳入结直肠癌患者38例。术前GPS与病理M分期（P=0.007）和TNM分期（P=0.013）有关,与病理T分期及N分期无关（P〉0.05）;术后GPS与病理T、N、M分期与TNM分期均无关（P〉0.05）。术前及术后GPS与结直肠癌患者术后生存质量和术后并发症发生情况均无关（P〉0.05）。结论术前GPS与结直肠癌病理M分期与TNM分期有关。机体炎症反应可能不是结直肠癌患者术后近期预后的决定性因素。     

腹腔镜结直肠癌手术与开放手术远期疗效的对比研究

目的：探讨腹腔镜辅助结直肠癌根治术的远期疗效及其预后的影响因素。方法：回顾分析2004年1月至2006年12月施行82例腹腔镜结直肠癌手术及86例开放手术的临床资料,统计分析两组患者的一般资料、手术情况、病理结果及生存期等数据。结果：168例中失访21例,随访的147例中目前仍存活101例,死亡46例。开放手术组患者术后1年、3年、5年整体生存率分别为91.7%、67.6%、64.6%;腹腔镜组术后1年、3年、5年整体生存率分别为96.0%、89.3%、63.6%。Log-rank检验显示差异有统计学意义（P=0.049）。单因素分析：与结直肠癌预后有关的因素包括手术方式、分化程度、淋巴结转移、病理分期、术前CEA、术后化疗。按ɑ=0.05标准,进行Cox回归模型多因素分析表明,分化程度、pTNM分期、术前CEA、术后化疗是影响结直肠癌生存的独立预后指标,相对危险度分别为1.522,3.019,2.038,1.762。结论：腹腔镜结直肠癌手术的远期疗效优于开放手术,但不是影响结直肠癌预后的独立因素。分化程度、pTNM分期、术前CEA、术后化疗是影响结直肠癌患者远期生存的独立预后指标,其中肿瘤分期是影响结直肠癌预后最重要的因素。     

直肠癌神经周围浸润的临床研究

目的 探讨直肠癌神经周嗣浸润（PNI）的临床意义.方法 回顾性分析郴州市第一人民医院2003年1月至2005年1月间行直肠前切除低位吻合术（Dixon）的204例直肠癌患者的临床资料,标本常规石蜡切片后行苏木精-伊红染色,以肿瘤细胞浸润神经束或神经束膜判定为PNI阳性.分析PNI与直肠癌临床病理特征和预后的关系.结果 204例直肠癌患者中PIN阳性65例（31.9%）.PNI与肿瘤大小、浸润深度、淋巴结转移、TNM分期、肿瘤生长方式、分化程度、肿瘤切除情况有关（P＜0.05）.PNI阳性组患者术后生存时间为（43.8±1.5）个月,明显短于PNI阴性组的（57.2±1.5）个月（P＜0.01）.PNI阳性的Ⅱ期患者术后平均生存时间为（46.5±3.2）个月,显著低于Ⅲ期患者的（55.7±1.2）个月（P＜0.05）.结论 PNI可作为直肠癌的预后判断指标.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.