Imaging the gallbladder: a historical perspective

After Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen's discovery of the X-ray in 1895, it was initially thought that gallstones could not be visualized. Surgeons relied solely on the clinical examination to detect biliary disease. Today, no evaluation of the gallbladder would be complete without the performance of an imaging study. Radiology has gone through several eras in the imaging of gallstones. The plain film era, 1895-1924, was characterized by techniques that improved soft-tissue detail, allowing better detection of radiopaque stones. The contrast media era, 1924-1960, was initiated by the invention of IV cholecystography. In 1925, oral cholecystography was developed. During the era of expanding technology, 1960-1979, percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography, scintigraphy, and sonography came into use. The therapeutic era began in the 1980s.     

Biological warfare: the threat in historical perspective

The story of work on biological warfare in the twentieth century is briefly reviewed and the history of the British programme analyzed, largely from documents now available in the Public Records Office. The position of the United Kingdom in relation to other military and political issues has varied, as has its overall attitude from time to time. In the 1930s a defensive stance was linked to the health effects of conventional war. During and after the Second World War the objective was to obtain a biological bomb before actual or potential enemies, but later the emphasis returned to a more defensive stance, with attempts to assess the hazard over wide areas. Any evaluation of the effects of new developments in genetics should take the changing nature of these past assessments into account.     

An historical perspective of early Italian air medical transport

The early times of aviation medicine were dominated by military actions and needs. This article describes the pioneering era of Italian air medical transport during the period between World War I and early World War II.     

Contrast agents used for myelography: an historical perspective

Radiographers often lack a sense of historical perspective, but lack of knowledge of the past can obstruct further advances. This article summarizes the history of myelographic contrast agents used in the 60 years prior to the introduction of water-soluble, non-ionic, low osmolar compounds currently employed. These media have either been negative or positive; water-soluble or insoluble; ionic or non-ionic; very hypertonic or relatively less so.     

Radiographic features of paediatric pneumocystis pneumonia -- a historical perspective

AIM: To determine differences between the plain radiographic features of paediatric pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) recorded before the emergence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in 1982 and those documented in the HIV era. To establish differences in the radiographic features of PCP documented in HIV-infected children in developed and developing countries. METHOD: A Medline search of articles was conducted from 1950 to 2006, using the terms "pneumocystis pneumonia in children" and "chest radiographic features" or "bilateral opacification" or "lobar consolidation" or "asymmetrical opacification" or "pneumatocoeles" or "cavities" or "pneumothorax" or "pneumomediastinum" or "pleural effusion" or "mediastinal adenopathy" or "nodules" or "normal chest radiography". Appropriate articles were retrieved, radiological data extracted, reference lists examined and hand searches of referenced articles conducted. RESULTS: Diffuse bilateral "ground-glass" or alveolar pulmonary opacification, which may show some asymmetry, has been consistently documented as the commonest radiographic finding in childhood PCP throughout the period under review. The less common radiological features of PCP in children are similar to those in adults. In developed countries, PCP-related pulmonary air cysts have been reported at an earlier age in HIV-infected children, compared with uninfected children. PCP-related air cysts, pneumothorax, and pneumomediastinum have been reported in children in developed but not in developing countries. CONCLUSION: The radiological features of paediatric PCP documented before the HIV epidemic are similar to those recorded in the HIV era. Further study of the determinants of the uncommon radiographic features in children is warranted.     

Prophylactic knee bracing

Six studies to determine the effectiveness of prophylactic knee braces in preventing medial collateral ligament (MCL) injury in football are compared. Criteria useful in evaluating studies are discussed, such as the probability of confounding factors, bias in selecting cases and controls, and variations in defining injury and exposure. Cost, as well as some ethical issues associated with mandated use are discussed. While four of these studies found a reduction in MCL injuries associated with using a brace, two of them reported increases. No consensus arises from these studies, conflicting results as well as methodological problems in some make it impossible to state with assurance the role of prophylactic knee bracing in football at this time.     

Toward automated image analysis: future possibilities in historical perspective

This field is in its infancy. Some people look at artificial intelligence and just call it complex programming, but artificial intelligence is now being applied to image understanding and attempts to utilize knowledge about the domain of the image to analyze it. The practicality of this approach is a long way off, however, and the radiologist of today does not need to fear that computers will change the work habits of image interpretation for some time to come.     

A historical perspective of the radiation oncology workforce and ongoing initiatives to affect recruitment and retention

The field of radiation oncology has become exceptionally technologically driven and multidisciplinary over the past two decades. This specialty of medicine is one that requires not only the command of highly complex modalities but also the assembly of a competent and expertly skilled team of medical professionals. Although the profession has grown tremendously in past years, the workforce has not been able to meet the demands of the practice. A significant shortage of radiation therapists, dosimetrists, and oncology nurses exists in the United States today and will almost certainly increase in severity over the next several years. A similar crisis has been seen in several other countries, most notably Canada and Australia, and has contributed to prolonged delays in cancer treatment for many patients.