粗钻头法距下关节融合术治疗距下关节炎

目的探讨粗钻头法行距下关节融合术治疗距下关节炎的临床疗效。方法 2006年10月至2009年1月采用粗钻头法行距下关节融合术治疗11例严重距下关节炎患者。男7例,女4例;年龄22～63岁,平均42.5岁。右足6例,左足5例。其中陈旧性跟骨骨折后创伤性关节炎9例,骨关节炎1例,类风湿关节炎1例。采用跟骨外侧切口,以4.5 mm粗钻头于距下关节处开出骨道,取髂骨植入。结果所有患者随访9～42个月,平均22个月,均达到骨性融合。按视觉模拟法对疼痛评分,术前和末次随访分别为5.9～7.5分（平均6.7分）及1.1～2.0（平均1.5分）。根据美国足踝外科协会足-踝评分系统评分,从术前41～67分（平均55.6分）至末次随访72～94分（平均83.7分）。优5例,良4例,可2例,优良率81.8%。结论应用粗钻头行距下关节融合术,创伤小、临床操作简便、易行、融合率高,值得临床推广应用。     

小切口经皮空心螺钉内固定行距下关节融合术治疗距下关节炎

目的 探讨单纯小切口经皮空心螺钉内固定行距下关节融合术治疗距下关节炎的临床疗效.方法 2006年1月至2009年12月对26例(27足)保守治疗6个月以上无效的距下关节炎患者行距下关节融合治疗,男13例,女13例;平均年龄38.7岁(26～73岁);左侧11足,右侧16足.其中创伤性关节炎16例16足,类风湿关节炎6例7足,骨关节炎4例4足.术前平均病程8.3个月(6～25个月).手术采用外侧约4 cm切口,通过经皮穿针平行钻入2枚空心螺钉予以固定.术前和末次随访时采用视觉模拟法(VAS)疼痛评分和美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)踝与后足评分分别对疼痛和功能进行评估.同时采用X线摄片和CT扫描进行影像学评估. 结果 26例患者术后获平均18 5个月(6～47个月)随访.术前与末次随访时VAS疼痛评分分别为(6.9±0.7)、(1.5±0.3)分,差异有统计学意义(t=17.000,P=0.000);AOFAS踝与后足评分分别为(54.3±12.1)、(82.6±11.3)分,差异有统计学意义(t=6.308,P=0.000).术后X线片或CT示26例患者全部获骨性融合,平均融合时间为10.8周(10～14周). 结论 小切口经皮穿针空心螺钉内固定行距下关节融合术治疗距下关节炎具有创伤小、恢复快、并发症少等优点,易于推广.     

关节镜下距下关节融合术治疗创伤性距下关节炎

目的探讨关节镜下距下关节融合术治疗创伤性距下关节炎的效果。方法2003年1月～2007年2月,对8例距下关节创伤性关节炎行关节镜下距下关节融合术,交替使用三个入路。结果8例术后随访20～55个月,平均30个月。未见皮肤坏死、麻木、感染等手术并发症。8例X线片均示骨性融合,平均愈合时间10.8周（9～12周）。改良美国足踝外科协会（AOFAS）评分从术前的（51.0±11.7）分提高到（82.0±10.9）分,差异具有显著性（配对t检验,t=19.69,P〈0.01）。结论关节镜下距下关节融合术创伤小,理论上不损伤跟骨距骨的血供,患者痛苦小,操作简单,避免切开,早期适当活动及负重,有助于恢复本体感觉,有利于骨性愈合,效果确切。     

改良小L形入路距下关节撑开植骨融合治疗陈旧性跟骨骨折距下关节炎

目的：观察改良跟腱旁后外侧小“L”入路距下关节撑开植骨融合治疗陈旧性跟骨骨折距下关节炎的疗效。方法：2009年3月至2012年9月,应用改良小“L”入路距下关节撑开植骨融合术治疗22例跟骨骨折伴距下关节炎患者,男13例,女9例;年龄22～49岁,平均35．3岁。病程11～32个月,平均21个月。根据Stephens-Sanders分型,Ⅱ型16例,Ⅲ型6例。通过改良AOFAS踝与后足评分标准对手术前后患足功能进行评估,比较改善程度。结果：1例出现皮缘坏死,无感染、螺钉断裂、植骨吸收及距骨坏死等情况发生。术后21例获随访,时间18～46个月,平均29个月。术后4个月融合处均获骨性愈合。末次随访时改良AOFAS评分由术前32-65分（平均50．8分）提高至末次随访66～92分（平均82．6分）,与术前比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0.01）。结论：改良小“L”入路距下关节撑开植骨融合术是治疗陈旧性跟骨骨折并发距下关节炎的一种有效方法,临床操作简单,并发症少,可矫正跟骨骨折畸形愈合的主要病理改变,恢复足部外形并改善后足功能。     

距下关节融合术治疗粉碎性跟骨关节内骨折预后的临床研究

目的通过观察距下关节融合术治疗严重跟骨关节内粉碎性骨折的临床预后,探讨该手术适应证及优、缺点。方法1999年10月～2004年6月,对69例78足严重跟骨关节内粉碎性骨折患者进行距下关节融合术,采取跟骨外侧手术入路,取自体松质骨植骨距下关节融合。结果58例65足获得随访,随访时间8～31个月,平均19.8个月。术后根据美国足踝学会HindfootScores评分:优良率达到87.69%。结论自体松质骨植骨距下关节融合术是治疗跟骨关节内粉碎性骨折的一种有效方法,能恢复后足外形及功能,但不能完全缓解后足疼痛。     

微创距下关节融合术治疗距下关节创伤性关节炎

目的探讨微创距下关节融合术治疗跟骨陈旧性骨折导致的距下关节创伤性关节炎的手术疗效。方法C型臂透视引导下定位距下关节,采用跟腱后外侧切口,透视引导下于距下关节内打人导针,并以阶梯钻沿导针方向扩开通道,破坏距下关节两侧关节面,后取自体髂骨移植或以同种异体骨填充关节间隙,并自足跟打人空心拉力螺钉1～2枚给予固定。结果本组17例患者均获随访,随访时间7～13个月,平均10个月。采用Maryland足部功能评分Ⅲ,优10例,良6例,可1例,优良率94．12％。结论微创距下关节融合术治疗跟骨陈旧骨折距下关节创伤性关节。炎,手术操作简单、创伤小、术后恢复快、疗效满意、值得推广。     

距下关节融合与跟骨丘部矫形术治疗严重跟骨骨折畸形愈合

目的观察距下关节融合与跟骨丘部矫形术联合治疗严重跟骨骨折畸形愈合的临床疗效,探讨其手术适应证及优、缺点。方法1994年12月~2006年1月,对84例(96足)跟骨骨折畸形愈合的患者行距下关节融合与跟骨丘部矫形术,采取跟骨外侧手术入路,取自体松质骨植骨距下关节融合及内固定。其中男51例62足,女33例34足;年龄21~58岁,平均38.5岁。单侧72例,双侧12例。损伤原因:高处坠落伤57例,交通事故伤22例,其他5例。损伤至手术时间6~31个月,平均9.5个月。结果术后患者均获随访1~132个月。根据美国足踝外科协会足与踝关节评分标准,优31足,良53足,差12足,优良率87.5%。术后X线片示Bo。hler角、Gissane角、跟骨丘部高度及跟骨宽度与术前比较,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论自体松质骨植骨距下关节融合与跟骨丘部矫形术是治疗跟骨骨折畸形愈合的一种有效方法,能恢复后足外形及功能,明显降低跟骨骨折步行疼痛后遗症的发生率。     

距下关节融合对中后足周围关节活动度影响的生物力学实验研究

目的分析研究正常新鲜足标本在正常情况下进行距下关节融合后对跟骰、距舟关节和踝关节的三维运动度的影响程度。方法采用新鲜足标本12例，将距下关节融合后，通过加载使足产生某种形式的运动，用三维数字化坐标仪测量跟骰、距舟关节和踩关节各关节组成骨在某种运动状态下的相对三维坐标位移，通过矩阵转换和求解非线性函数方程计算其三维旋转角度，了解跟骰、距舟关节和踝关节在距下关节融合前后2种状态下的相对运动范围，确定距下关节融合后对于周围足踝关节运动的影响程度。结果距下关节融合前后跟骰、距舟关节和踝关节在背屈一跖屈、内翻一外翻、内收一外展轴的三维运动范围之间的统计学分析显示存在显著性差异（P＜0．01），各关节平均三维运动范围受限程度分别为36．14％、38．36％、21．84％。结论距下关节融合后对跟骰、距舟关节和踝关节的活动度存在一定的限制作用，降低了前足与后足的协同性，可能增加足跗关节间退行性关节炎发生，但保留了距舟、跟骰关节的大部分活动。     

跟骨丘部重建距下关节融合术治疗跟骨骨折术后距下关节炎

[目的]探讨跟骨丘部重建距下关节融合术治疗SandersⅣ型跟骨骨折术后距下关节炎的疗效。[方法]自2010年1月²013年1月采用跟骨丘部重建距下关节融合术治疗21例SandersⅣ型跟骨骨折术后距下关节炎,疗效评定采用美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)评分和视觉模拟评分(VAS)。[结果]所有病例随访122013年1月采用跟骨丘部重建距下关节融合术治疗21例SandersⅣ型跟骨骨折术后距下关节炎,疗效评定采用美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)评分和视觉模拟评分(VAS)。[结果]所有病例随访12³2个月,平均14.5个月,完全负重时间为术后332个月,平均14.5个月,完全负重时间为术后3⁶个月。术前患肢美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)评分406个月。术前患肢美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)评分40⁵5分,平均(46.6±4.2)分,视觉模拟评分(VAS)755分,平均(46.6±4.2)分,视觉模拟评分(VAS)7⁹分,平均(7.9±0.7)分。术后患肢AOFAS评分709分,平均(7.9±0.7)分。术后患肢AOFAS评分70⁹0分,平均(82.6±5.2)分,VAS评分090分,平均(82.6±5.2)分,VAS评分0⁴分,平均(2.1±1.3)分。术前与术后对比差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01)。[结论]跟骨丘部重建距下关节融合术治疗SandersⅣ型跟骨骨折术后距下关节炎疗效满意。     

内踝或外踝截骨手术治疗距骨体骨折并踝关节、距下关节脱位

目的探讨距骨体骨折并踝关节、距下关节脱位的损伤发生机制与手术治疗策略。方法回顾性分析自2009-02—2017-06采用内踝或外踝截骨手术治疗的23例距骨体骨折并踝关节、距下关节脱位。术前予以跟骨牵引,进行冷敷、消肿对症治疗,待肿胀消退后选择内外侧双切口手术治疗。12例合并内踝骨折术中无需内踝截骨,8例术中进行内踝截骨,3例术中进行外踝截骨。结果 23例均获得随访,随访时间平均16.3(8~51)个月。3例术后4个月时出现距骨体密度轻度增高,行CT三维重建检查未见明确骨坏死。1例出现距下关节创伤性关节炎。骨折愈合时间平均11.3(9~15)周。末次随访时疼痛VAS评分平均0.6(0~3)分,AOFAS踝与后足评分平均88.2(76~100)分。结论距骨体骨折并踝关节、距下关节脱位需早期手术治疗,术前应进行CT三维重建了解骨折特征,制定合理的截骨方案;术中解剖复位骨折脱位,加压坚强内固定,保护距骨体部血运,尽可能降低术后距骨缺血性坏死发生率。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.