Chronic and recurrent cough

1.Bronchitis In the majority of patients with recurrent cough the cause is asthma or bronchitis. The main characteristics are episodic cough, usually associated with bouts of fever and malaise and in asthma with wheezing. It is unusual for sputum to be produced. Clinically the signs may be inspiratory and expiratory rhonchi and coarse crepitations but often the chest will be clear. Radiologically the hilar regions are prominent and bronchovascular markings increased, and there is no evidence of parenchymatous involvement. 2. Suppurating lung disease In this group of patients the cough is persistent and the patient is never free of cough. Purulent sputum can usually be produced if the child is postured and taught to cough and expectorate. Often there will be few signs in the chest, usually no more than a few crepitations. Radiologically there will almost invariably be parenchymatous involvement, either lobar, segmental or lobular collapse or pneumonic changes 3. Focal lesions A pathological lesion in the lumen, or wall, or which presses on or infiltrates the bronchial tree may cause a persistent dry cough by irritation of the sensitive receptors. The cough is usually unproductive and sounds dry. Secondary infection consequent on obstruction of the bronchial lumen is not common. Stridor or wheezing may be associated with the cough if the larynx, trachea or larger airways are significantly narrowed. Most of the lesions are relatively uncommon and their nature will only be determined by special methods using radiology and endoscopy 4. Nervous or psychogenic cough The two principal features are overt or covert parental anxiety about the child's cough and lack of any evidence of underlying respiratory disease     

Persistent cough in children and the overuse of medications

OBJECTIVE: Children referred for persistent cough were evaluated for the referring and final diagnosis, and the extent of the use of medications prior to referral and the side effects encountered. METHODS: Data on children seen by respiratory paediatricians for persistent cough (> or =4 weeks) in a tertiary respiratory setting were collected prospectively over 12 months. RESULTS: Of the 49 children, 61.2% were diagnosed with asthma at referral, with similar referral rates from general practitioners and paediatricians. Children with isolated cough were just as likely to have been diagnosed with asthma as children with cough and wheeze. Medication use (asthma, gastro-oesophageal reflux and antibiotics) prior to referral was high, asthma medications were most common, and of these 12.9% had significant steroid side effects. The most common abnormality found (46.9%) was a bronchoscopically defined airway lesion, and in 56.5% of these children, another diagnosis (aspiration, achalasia, gastro-oesophageal reflux) existed. No children had a sole final diagnosis of asthma and pre-referral medications were weaned in all children. CONCLUSION: Over diagnosis of asthma and the overuse of asthma treatments with significant side effects is common in children with persistent cough referred to a tertiary respiratory clinic. Children with persistent cough deserve careful evaluation to minimize the use of unnecessary medications and, if medications are used, assessment of response to treatment is important.     

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目的探讨慢性孤立性咳嗽的病因诊断及其程序。方法从首都医科大学附属北京儿童医院2003年10月至2004年8月在门诊就诊的58例慢性咳嗽患儿中,首先筛选慢性孤立性咳嗽病例,进一步根据咳嗽特征、辅助检查、治疗反应等确定慢性孤立性咳嗽的病因。结果在58例慢性咳嗽的患儿中,筛选出慢性孤立性咳嗽50例,其中鼻后滴流综合征20例(8例慢性副鼻窦炎,6例慢性过敏性鼻炎,6例感染后鼻炎)、咳嗽变异性哮喘17例、感染后咳嗽5例、心理性咳嗽4例、原发性胃食道反流1例、嗜酸粒细胞性支气管炎2例、未明原因1例。结论儿童慢性孤立性咳嗽的病因有鼻后滴流综合征、咳嗽变异性哮喘、感染后咳嗽、心理性咳嗽等。根据咳嗽特征、辅助检查、治疗反应等能确定绝大多数慢性孤立性咳嗽的病因。     

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??Cough variant asthma is a special type of asthma?? especially in children. Clinically??chronic persistent cough??as the sole or main clinical symptoms??with presence of airway hyperresponsiveness??is a characteristic manifestation of cough variant asthma. The etiology of CVA has not been determined. Now it is considered as similar as bronchial asthma. The essences are mainly chronic airway inflammation and airway hyperreactivity. The etidogy is closely related with season. And the frequency of disease development is seasonal. Good treatment response of the bronchodilator is the most reliable basis for diagnosis. Early intervention with anti-inflammation agent is benefitial to preventing the occurrence of typical asthma.     

温州地区儿童慢性咳嗽病因构成比研究

目的：分析温州地区慢性咳嗽患儿的常见病因分布,为临床诊治提供依据。方法：选取2008年1月至2010年12月温州医学院附属育英儿童医院呼吸科门诊就诊的慢性咳嗽初诊患儿,依据年龄分为～3岁、～6岁和～14岁组,在初诊后2周、1个月和3个月门诊或电话随访,根据随访治疗效果得出最终诊断结果。分析各病因的构成比,初诊和最终诊断的符合率。结果：研究期间共纳入739例慢性咳嗽患儿,年龄8个月至14岁,其中～3岁组174例（23.5%）,～6岁组288例（39.0%）,～14岁组277例（37.5%）。咳嗽病程4周至5年。1～4季度分别纳入103例（13.9%）、247例（33.4%）、96例（13.0%）和293例（39.7%）。①739例慢性咳嗽患儿中,单病因680例（92.0%）,单病因依次为上气道咳嗽综合征 237例（32.1%）,咳嗽变异性哮喘219例（29.6%）,感染后咳嗽109例（14.8%）,变应性咳嗽76例（10.3%）,心因性咳嗽25例（3.4%）,胃食管反流性咳嗽 9例（1.2%）,其他5例（0.7%）;双病因45例（6.1%）;病因不明 14例（1.9%）。②～3岁组最常见病因为感染后咳嗽（58例,33.3%）,～6岁组为上气道咳嗽综合征（114例,39.6%）,～14岁组为咳嗽变异性哮喘（103例,37.2%）,上述3种主要病因的各年龄组构成比差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。③上气道咳嗽综合征、咳嗽变异性哮喘、感染后咳嗽、变应性咳嗽、心因性咳嗽和胃食管反流性咳嗽所致慢性咳嗽共675例,其中496例初诊和最终诊断相符,初诊准确率为73.5%。结论：温州地区儿童慢性咳嗽主要病因为上气道咳嗽综合征、咳嗽变异性哮喘、感染后咳嗽和变应性咳嗽;不同年龄组儿童慢性咳嗽的病因构成比有所不同。     

Behavioral management of psychogenic cough: alternative to the "bedsheet" and other aversive techniques

The treatment of persistent psychogenic cough, a potentially debilitating condition among pediatric patients, can pose diagnostic and treatment dilemmas. Its treatment by the use of a procedure called reinforced suggestion technique was described previously. The use of an alternative procedure relying upon parental and self-monitoring of coughing and either social or material rewards for decreasing rates of coughing is presented.     

Chronic and recurrent cough, sinusitis and asthma. Much ado about nothing

Respiratory infections are the main causes of chronic or recurrent cough in children. Children present 3.8–8 infective episodes per year with cough lasting, on average, 1–3 wk and 10% will still have cough after 4 wk. There is evidence of over-treatment of cough with antibiotics, anti-asthmatic drugs (in Italy) and symptomatic treatments, all with insufficient evidence of efficacy. The relation between sinusitis, asthma and isolated cough is possibly overemphasized. Cough is a symptom of sinusitis, but one can rarely expect isolated persistent or recurrent cough as the only symptom. The issue of chronic cough as the only sign of asthma has been extensively investigated. Recent literature established that the majority of children with isolated cough do not have asthma in terms of both absence of signs of typical asthma inflammation and response to steroid treatment. This unconfirmed hypothesis has unfortunately often resulted in a misunderstood use of inhaled steroids as 'symptomatic' treatment. Our aim should be to avoid unnecessary medicalization and lessen anxiety not by simply prescribing, but by spending time in evaluating patients and explaining to parents what are mostly physiological events, which should resolve spontaneously over time.     

Habit cough in children

Cough is one of the most common presenting complaints in childhood. Chronic cough has many possible causes, and this symptom often results in extensive investigations, treatments and anxiety. Habit (habit-tic) and somatic cough disorder (also known as psychogenic cough) is one of the more common underlying diagnoses eventually reached. Habit cough often follows an upper respiratory infection. It is a dry, repetitive, honking, disruptive cough. Characteristically, habit cough usually reduces with distraction, and disappears in sleep. A good detailed history and physical examination, coupled with (normal) basic investigations will usually suffice in diagnosing habit cough – it is important to avoid extensive investigations and unnecessary treatments. However, it is also imperative to note that some children may have both pathological and habit or psychogenic cough. The mainstay of management of habit cough is education and addressing any underlying psychosocial stressors. Various forms of psychotherapies and physiotherapies (cough suppression techniques) have been shown to be effective. With intervention, most children with habit cough will achieve complete resolution, or at least improvement in symptoms. This short article is aimed at healthcare professionals working with children and gives practical advice about investigation and management of suspected habit cough in children and young people.     

Effect of controlled release salbutamol on nocturnal cough in asthma.

Sixteen asthmatic children completed a double blind placebo controlled crossover study of controlled release salbutamol (CRS) to assess its efficacy in controlling night time cough. Children with asthma were enrolled into the study on the basis of a history of persistent cough confirmed by two overnight tape recordings at home. Outcome was measured by two overnight tapes on each medication. Other treatment was unaffected. There was no significant fall in cough counts on CRS. Median scores were 14.5 and 12.0 coughing episodes per night for CRS and placebo respectively. Mean overnight oxygen saturation was identical in both treatment periods but morning peak flow showed a trend towards improvement on CRS. Treatment with CRS does not have a significant effect in control of night cough although it may improve objective measurements of lung function.     

提高儿童慢性咳嗽的诊治水平

儿童慢性咳嗽的病原、咳嗽反射、呼吸控制等与成人不同,套用成人慢性咳嗽指南不适于儿童。咳嗽持续时间超过8周定为慢性。以干咳和咳痰两种不同咳嗽进行区分,对诊断有所裨益。干咳常见于哮喘、咳嗽变异性哮喘、百日咳、上呼吸道感染等疾病后,这些患儿胸片多为阴性,肺功能和支气管舒张试验有助诊断。咳伴痰多为呼吸道感染疾病,胸片多见异常,必要时可做胸部CT、纤维支气管镜检以助诊断。小儿慢性咳嗽明确并去除病因即可治愈。     

Persistent cough in an adolescent

Jessica, a 14-year-old girl with a history of asthma, went to her pediatrician's office because of a persistent cough. She had been coughing for at least 3 months with occasional cough-free periods of less than a few days. The cough was nonproductive and was not accompanied by fever, rhinorrhea, or facial or chest pain. Jessica and her mother observed that the cough increased with exercise and typically was not present during sleep. She has used two metered-dose inhalers--albuterol and cromolyn--without any change in the cough pattern. For the past 5 years, Jessica has had mild asthma responsive to albuterol. She enjoys running on the cross-country team, soccer, and dancing. She is an average student and denies any change in academic performance. She has never been hospitalized or had an emergency department visit for asthma or pneumonia. There has been no recent travel or exposure to a person with a chronic productive cough, tobacco smoke, or a live-in pet. Jessica lives with her mother and younger sister in a 10-year-old, carpeted apartment without any evidence of mold or recent renovation. In the process of taking the history, the pediatrician noticed that Jessica coughed intermittently, with two or three coughs during each episode. At times, the cough was harsh; at other times, it was a quiet cough, as if she were clearing her throat. She was cooperative, without overt anxiety or respiratory distress. After a complete physical examination with normal findings, the pediatrician interviewed Jessica and her mother alone. Jessica's parents had been divorced for the past 6 years. She lived with her mother but visited her father, and his new family with two young children, every weekend. She spoke about this arrangement comfortably and said that she loved her father and mother but didn't like the tension she experienced at her father's home. "I don't like adults arguing when kids are around." When asked why she thought the cough persisted so long, she commented in a neutral tone, "I don't know. It's never been like this before." Jessica's pediatrician prescribed an inhaled steroid with the albuterol. When the cough did not respond after 1 week, he ordered a chest radiograph (normal) and a tuberculin skin test (purified protein derivative-negative), and he added montelukast (a leukotriene inhibitor) and monitored airway resistance with a peak flow meter. The cough persisted, and the peak flow recording showed normal airway resistance. At this time, Jessica's pediatrician suspected a conversion reaction and contemplated the next best therapeutic strategy.     

临床特征对儿童慢性咳嗽常见病因诊断的价值

目的 对慢性咳嗽常见病因的临床特征进行研究,分析其对各病因诊断的价值.方法 选取2008年1月 - 2009年12月门诊就诊的慢性咳嗽初诊患儿496例,按慢性咳嗽诊断程序作出慢性咳嗽初步诊断并按时随访,根据随访患儿治疗效果得出最终诊断.结果 496例患儿中感染后咳嗽(PIC)69例,咳嗽变异性哮喘(CVA)和变应性咳嗽(AC)219例,上气道咳嗽综合征(UACS)139例.CVA的临床特征主要为夜间咳嗽、干性咳嗽、特应性体质;UACS的临床特征主要为湿痰咳嗽、晨起咳嗽.结论 儿童慢性咳嗽主要病因为CVA、UACS、AC和PIC.各种病因的慢性咳嗽具有其主要的临床特征,其病因构成及临床特征可为经验性诊治慢性咳嗽提供参考.     

呼出气一氧化氮浓度测定在儿童支气管哮喘和咳嗽变异性哮喘中的诊断价值

目的 分析呼出气一氧化氮(FeNO)对于支气管哮喘和咳嗽变异性哮喘的诊断价值,并探讨能否应用FeNO区分支气管哮喘和咳嗽变异性哮喘。方法 选取2012年6月至2014年6月150例初诊为支气管哮喘的患儿以及120例初诊为咳嗽变异性哮喘的患儿为研究对象,对两组患儿进行FeNO检测、肺功能检查以及支气管激发试验;同期选取150例健康儿童为对照组,对对照组儿童行FeNO检测。采用受试者工作特征曲线(ROC)分析FeNO对于支气管哮喘和咳嗽变异性哮喘的诊断价值。结果 支气管哮喘和咳嗽变异性哮喘组患儿的FeNO值均高于对照组(P< 0.01),支气管哮喘组的FeNO值显著高于咳嗽变异性哮喘组(P< 0.01);支气管哮喘组FEV1/FVC%、FEV1%pred、PD20较咳嗽变异性哮喘组均降低(P< 0.01)。FeNO诊断支气管哮喘的最佳阈值为19.5 ppb,敏感度为83.3%,特异度为86.7%;FeNO诊断咳嗽变异性哮喘的最佳阈值为15.5 ppb,敏感度为67.5%,特异度为78.0%;FeNO区别支气管哮喘和咳嗽变异性哮喘的最佳阈值为28.5 ppb,敏感度为60.7%,特异度为82.5%。结论 FeNO测定可用于支气管哮喘和咳嗽变异性哮喘的诊断和鉴别诊断。     

福建省福州地区儿童慢性咳嗽病因分析

目的 探讨福建省福州地区儿童慢性咳嗽的病因.方法 根据中华医学会儿科学分会呼吸学组与<中华儿科杂志>编辑委员会2008年制定的<儿童慢性咳嗽诊断与治疗指南>的标准,对福建省福州儿童医院哮喘专科门诊诊断的364例慢性咳嗽患儿,按照指南的诊断流程询问病史,进行体检、辅助检查,初步确定病因后,并针对病因进行特异性治疗,分别在初诊后半个月、1个月、3个月对患儿进行随访,根据辅助检查及疗效判定病因诊断,进而分析病因构成比.结果 364例慢性咳嗽患儿病因依次为:咳嗽变异性哮喘171例(47.0%),上气道咳嗽综合征104例(28.6%),呼吸道感染和感染后咳嗽58例(15.9%),胃食管反流17例(4.7%),支气管异物3例(0.8%);引起慢性咳嗽只有单一病因的299例(82.1%),同时有2种病因的56例(15.4%),同时有3种病因的9例(2.5%).结论 福建省福州地区儿童慢性咳嗽的病因依次为咳嗽变异性哮喘、上气道咳嗽综合征、呼吸道感染和感染后咳嗽、胃食管反流、支气管异物;不同年龄组儿童慢性咳嗽病因构成比不同;部分患儿合并有2或3种病因,表明儿童慢性咳嗽病因呈多因素.

Abstract：

Objective Chronic cough in children is a common pediatric symptom with complex causes and its diagnosis is difficult; chronic cough affects the life of children in both physical and mental health and also learning. Therefore this study aimed to investigate the causes of chronic cough in children in Fuzhou area of Fujian province. Method Data were collected from 364 children with chronic cough who visited the asthma specialist clinic of Children's Hospital of Fuzhou, Fujian Province from March 2009 to April 2010. The diagnosis was made according to Guideline for Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Cough in Pediatrics published in 2008. Among the patients, 241 were boys and 123 girls. The patients were divided into 3 age groups: group 1, 1 to 3 years old ( infants and young children group, n =75); group 2, 4 to 6years old (pre-school group, n =215 ); and group 3, over 7 years (school-age group, n = 74), the mean age was (4.8 ± 1.1) years (3 months to 14 years), course of the illness was (4.5 ± 1.8) months (4 weeks to 38 months ). Mycoplasma pneumoniae was detected by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Result The causes of chronic cough were as follows: 171 cases (46. 98% ) had cough variant asthma; 104 cases ( 28.57% ) had upper airway cough syndrome; 58 cases ( 15.93% ) had respiratory infections; 17 cases (4.67% ) had gastroesophageal reflux; 3 cases (0.82% ) had foreign bodies. Totally 9 cases (2.47% ) had chronic cough associated with 3 causes; 56 cases ( 15.38% ) had 2 causes and 299cases ( 82.14% ) had single cause. The main causes of cough in the group of pre-school children were cough variant asthma and upper airway cough syndrome. The proportion of the upper airway cough syndrome in school-age children group was the highest among the 3 age groups, which is flowed by cough variant asthma.Conclusion The causes of chronic cough in children were cough variant asthma, upper airway cough syndrome, respiratory infections, cough after infection, gastroesophageal reflux and foreign bodies in Fuzhou area of Fujian province. Children with chronic cough in different age groups had different etiology, in about 18% of the children the etiology of chronic cough was associated with 3 or 2 causes, indicating that the causes of chronic cough in children are multifactorial.     

Chronic night cough and asthma severity in children with stable asthma

The relationship between night cough and other indices of asthma severity was studied in 21 children with clinically stable asthma and persistent night cough. Overnight cough was quantified and related to symptom scores, oxygen saturation (S_aO₂) during sleep, evening and morning peak flow recordings and daytime tests of lung function. In the index group the median number of coughing episodes was 23 (range 1–158). Only 4 children had counts of <10 overnight, similar to the comparison group of 12 children all of whom had counts of <10. There was a trend towards the association of overnight cough with reduced evening peak flow (r=–0.407,P=0.07) and reduced S_aO₂ (r=–0.36,P=0.10). Abnormalities in daytime tests of lung function were observed in 13 children. There was no relationship between night cough and daytime indices of lung function abnormality although children with more severe daytime abnormalities also had significant night cough. Conversely, five children with chronic night cough had normal daytime function.Conclusion Night-time cough in children with asthma is not simply a reflection of daytime lung function status, whereas, overnight S_aO₂ correlates well. Other factors need to be explored to explain the variability of night-time cough in these children.     

儿童慢性咳嗽的程序式诊断方法探讨

目的 分析儿童慢性咳嗽的病因分布,并对儿童慢性咳嗽的程序式诊断方法进行探讨。方法 参考Morice的慢性咳嗽诊断程序,对81例慢性咳嗽儿童进行逐步评估。最后的诊断结果分为明确诊断、疑似诊断和病因未明。结果 明确诊断65例（80．3％）,疑似诊断15例（18．5％）,病因未明1例。81例慢性咳嗽中前几位病因依次为气管、支气管异物（16．9％）,咳嗽变异型哮喘／哮喘（15．7％）,肺部感染（后）（14．5％）,鼻后滴注综合征（8．4％）,先天气管、支气管狭窄或其他发育异常（7．2％）。不同的年龄阶段病因分布有一定特征性。结论 儿童慢性咳嗽的病因复杂,应用程序式诊断方法可明确大部分病因,其病因分布具有年龄特点;病史、体检、影像学检查及肺功能测定在儿童慢性咳嗽的病因诊断中发挥重要作用;诊断过程应予动态评价,及时随访。最后对Morice诊断程序作出补充。     

重庆地区儿童慢性咳嗽病因构成比及其随访

目的 了解引起重庆地区儿童非特异性慢性咳嗽的病因构成比,分析病因特点.方法 根据中华医学会儿科分会呼吸学组与中华儿科杂志制订的<儿童慢性咳嗽诊断与治疗指南>的标准,对2008年6月至2009年4月重庆医科大学附属儿童医院呼吸中心哮喘专科门诊共266例慢性咳嗽儿童,按照指南的诊断流程询问病史,体格检查,辅助检查,在初步确定病因后,针对病因进行特异性治疗,分别于初诊后半个月,1个月和3个月随访,根据治疗效果确定病因诊断,进而统计病因构成比.结果 随访后266例患儿确诊病因例数及构成比由高到低依次为:咳嗽变异性哮喘(CVA)125例(47.0%),CVA+上气道咳嗽综合征(UACS)58例(21.8%),呼吸道感染和感染后咳嗽44例(16.5%),UACS 35例(13.2%),随访结束时原因仍不明者3例(1.1%),心因性咳嗽1例(0.4%).年龄组病因:≤3岁组CVA 70.0%(35/50),呼吸道感染和感染后咳嗽20.0%(10/50);3～6岁组中CVA占50.7%(71/140);≥6岁组各病因间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).不同年龄组间病因构成比差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).结论 引起重庆地区儿童非特异性慢性咳嗽前4位病因依次为CVA,CVA+UACS,呼吸道感染和感染后咳嗽,UACS,不同年龄组儿童慢性咳嗽的病因构成比不同.     

Hyperresponsiveness of cough receptors in patients with bronchial asthma

The hyperresponsiveness of cough receptors was evaluated using the acetic acid inhalation test in healthy adults, patients with bronchial asthma, and children with or without cough. The concentration of acetic acid inducing cough was more than 20% in all 16 healthy adults and 18 children in the control group. There were two groups of asthmatic patients: Those in group 1 showed normal response to more than 20% acetic acid (n = 46), and those in group 2 showed a sensitive reaction to less than 10% (n = 11). Mean age was 9.0 +/- 4.2 years in group 1 and 15.1 +/- 7.6 years in group 2 (statistical significance, P less than .001). Six of 11 asthmatic patients in group 2 were classified as nonallergic asthmatics, whereas only five of 46 patients in group 1 were nonallergic (P less than .01). Bronchoconstriction was not induced in any case, in spite of the production of cough. It is suggested that the hyperresponsiveness of individual cough receptors without the stimulation of irritant receptors be evaluated.     

Cough sensitivity in children with asthma, recurrent cough, and cystic fibrosis

In adults, cough sensitivity is influenced by gender and is heightened in those with non-productive cough. This study examined if cough sensitivity is (i) altered in children with asthma, recurrent cough, and cystic fibrosis and (ii) influenced by age, gender, or forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1). Cough sensitivity to capsaicin and spirometry were performed on 209 children grouped by the diagnosis of asthma, recurrent dry cough, cystic fibrosis, and controls. Cough sensitivity was increased in children with recurrent cough, and lower in children with cystic fibrosis when compared with children with asthma and controls. Age influenced cough sensitivity in the controls. In the asthmatics, FEV1 (% predicted) correlated to cough sensitivity measures. There was no gender difference in cough sensitivity. It is concluded that cough sensitivity is different among children with recurrent dry cough, asthma, and cystic fibrosis. In children, age, but not gender, influences cough sensitivity measures and when cough sensitivity is used in comparative studies, children should be matched for age and FEV1.     

Persistent cough: is it asthma?

The aim of this study was to determine if children in the community with persistent cough can be considered to have asthma. A validated questionnaire was given to the parents of 1245 randomly selected children aged 6-12 years. Atopy was measured with skin prick tests. Children with persistent cough had less morbidity and less atopy compared with children with wheeze. Although the syndrome commonly referred to as "cough variant asthma" could not be shown in this study, a significant number of children with persistent cough had been diagnosed as having asthma and were treated with asthma medications including inhaled corticosteroids. Studies are urgently needed to determine the appropriate treatment for children with persistent cough.