Antibiotic costs and prescribing patterns in a recently commissioned Liverpool teaching hospital. Part II: Antimicrobial chemoprophylaxis

All antibiotics prescribed for prophylaxis in a major teaching hospital were prospectively surveyed during 31 consecutive days. Of 2350 patients admitted during that period, 238 (10.1%) received antibiotics for prophylaxis. A total of 1238 operations were performed during the period of study, of which 201 (16.2%) were covered with antibiotics, at a cost of 3472 pounds. The use of prophylaxis increased according to the risk of peri-operative wound contamination, from 15.8% in Class I to 52.4% in Class III operations. The average cost of chemoprophylaxis also increased correspondingly. A further 40 regimens were issued for non-surgical prophylaxis at a cost of 258 pounds. Twenty antibiotics were prescribed either alone or in 37 different combinations for surgical prophylaxis, the most frequent being cephradine (22%), metronidazole (17%), penicillin (12%), and tobramycin (11%). The mean duration of antibiotic administration for all surgical procedures was 6.1 days.     

外科围手术期抗菌药物应用的调查分析

目的为了解外科手术患者围手术期抗菌药物的应用和存在问题,对抗菌药物的合理使用和宏观管理提供科学依据。方法对462例患者围手术期抗菌药物应用进行回顾性调查分析。结果460例患者使用了抗菌药物,其中预防用药占83.26%,治疗用药占16.74%;术后预防性使用抗菌药物时间≥4d者占80.68%,其中用药时间最长28d;术后单用1种和应用二联、三联和四联抗菌药物的分别占43.26%、44.13%、11.96%、0.65%。结论在围手术期抗菌药物的使用中存在着不合理之处,应加强管理。     

重视围手术期抗菌药物合理应用

目的提高围手术期中抗菌药物预防使用的合理性. 方法 1997年3月和2001年3月两组手术患者用药调查,比较围手术期预防性使用抗菌药物的情况. 结果通过加强围手术期预防用药的管理工作,制定可行的规章制度、定期监测和结果反馈、采取干预性措施等手段,促使围手术期抗菌药物应用的规范化、合理化;2001年组手术前期抗菌药物使用率下降(P<0.001),手术期用药率提高(P<0.001),手术后期用药时间缩短1～2 d;预防性用药种类趋向广谱抗菌药物,第三代头孢菌素类和氟喹诺酮类药物比例增高. 结论应严格掌握各类手术预防用药的指征;加强手术前期预防性用药的管理;选择适当抗菌药物进行围手术期的预防;限制手术后期用药时间;定期对手术患者用药进行监测.     

'Evidence-based' perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis policy in Belgian hospitals after a change in the reimbursement system

The costs of antibiotics in Belgian hospitals are nearly fully reimbursed by the health insurance. Such a situation is not conductive to rational drug use. A new reimbursement system for perioperatively-administered antibiotics in Belgian hospitals was implemented in May 1997 by Royal Decree. A reimbursement code for antibiotic use was linked to the reimbursement of surgical interventions. This code represents a reimbursement which covers 75% of the cost of perioperative prophylaxis based on optimal indication, dose, and duration as recommended by international and Belgian consensus guidelines. The actual antibiotic prescribed during the 72-hour perioperative period (the day before, during and after surgery) is reimbursed at only 25% of its full cost. Thus, if the perioperative prophylactic antibiotic regimen complies with the evidence-based guidelines, the costs of antibiotic prescribing will be fully reimbursed by the health insurance (75% of the standard +25% of the actual costs). The new reimbursement system does not apply to antibiotics which are prescribed for treatment of intercurrent infections; these antibiotics continue to be fully reimbursed. Annual expenditures for antibiotics, for both antibiotic treatment and prophylaxis, nationwide and per hospital, have shown marked improvements in perioperative antibiotic use after the decree was implemented. Surgeons' adherence to the evidence-based standard of prophylactic antibiotic use has improved over time. In conclusion, rapid implementation of the perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis policy was achieved through changes in the reimbursement of antibiotics for surgery patients.     

医院等级评审对围手术期预防应用抗菌药物影响评价

目的为规范医院围手术期抗菌药物预防性应用、探索合理干预措施管理提供依据。方法通过医院感染监测系统,调取2（113年3月、5月医院外科手术病例728例作为非干预组：调取2013年10月、2014年1月全院外科手术病例742例作为干预组。通过各项指标分析比较干预前后围手术期预防性使用抗菌药物情况。结果开展围手术期抗菌药物临床应用专项整治活动后,I类切口手术抗菌药物使用率由100％降至31．66%,围手术期抗菌药物使用率由100％降至59．03％,且术后切口部位感染并未出现增长。术前0．5～2h用药率由整治前的81．59％升高至100％（P〈0．05）。专项整治后围手术期预防应用抗菌药物时长由5．72天降至1．56天。整治后围术期抗菌药物合理应用明显提高。结论医院开展围手术期抗菌药物预防应用专项整治取得明显成效。     

清洁手术预防性应用抗菌药物的调查分析

目的了解清洁手术抗菌药物应用情况,加强抗菌药物使用的管理。方法采用回顾性调查的方法,对347例清洁手术患者抗菌药物应用进行统计分析。结果347例清洁手术患者中343例使用了抗菌药物,使用率为98.85%,平均用药时间7.22 d,其中用药>3 d者占90.96%,用药>7 d者达53.35%;在术前0.5~2 h内给药者91例(26.53%);预防用药共7种,头孢菌素类占70.26%,而且多为三代头孢菌素。结论在清洁手术预防性应用抗菌药物中存在不合理现象,必须加强对医生抗菌药物合理使用知识的培训和建立有效的监督管理机制。     

The prevalence survey of nosocomial infections: a very informative tool in a big hospital setting

In November 2001 a one-day prevalence survey of nosocomial infections (NI) was conducted in surgical and intensive care units at two hospitals in Rome. The main goal was to quantify the occurrence of NI and of some patient-care practices, such as antibiotic use. The following NI were studied: pneumonia, bloodstream infections, urinary tract infections, surgical site infections (SSI), central line-related local infections. A total of 517 patients were included. The prevalence of the above mentioned NI was 6.6%. SSI were the most frequent NI (50%), with a prevalence of 6.5% in patients who underwent surgery; the SSI prevalence was 4.7% in clean surgical procedures (SP) and 5.6% in clean-contaminated SP. In 29 NI, 33 micro-organisms were isolated; the most frequent (24.3%) was Staphylococcus aureus, which was methicillin-resistant (MRSA) in 75% of the strains. On the day of the study, 41.8% of the patients were treated with antimicrobials, mainly aminopenicillins and third generation cephalosporins. In 31.8% of cases antibiotics were given for surgical prophylaxis; patients received prophylactic antibiotics more than 2 hours prior the initial incision in almost 40% of clean SP and 60% of clean-contaminated SP. In our hospitals prevalence survey was a very useful tool to identify the following priorities: SSI prospective surveillance in clean and clean-contaminated SP, control of MRSA selection and transmission, guidelines for antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery.     

A national survey of surgical antibiotic prophylaxis in Turkey.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the quality of antibiotic prophylaxis for clean and clean-contaminated elective surgical procedures. DESIGN: A cross-sectional, country-wide survey. SETTING: Thirty-six hospitals in 12 cities in Turkey. PARTICIPANTS: Four hundred thirty-nine surgeons from 6 different specialties who performed selected procedures of interest. METHODS: A random sample of surgeons from different hospitals was selected. A standardized data collection form was used to record the type of procedure, the names, doses, timing of the first doses, and duration of antibiotics, important decisive factors, and problems in the management of prophylactic antibiotic use for surgical procedures. RESULTS: Fifty-five percent of surgeons addressed completed the survey. For clean-contaminated procedures, 6% of surgeons did not use antibiotic prophylaxis, whereas 88% used more than a single dose. Inappropriate antibiotics were chosen for 32% of procedures. In 39% of procedures, the first dose of antibiotics was not administered during induction of anesthesia. Duration of prophylaxis was longer than 24 hours in 80% and longer than 48 hours in 46% of all procedures. Only 112 surgeons (26%) were using definitely appropriate prophylaxis in all ways. Multivariate analysis revealed that surgeons in university hospitals (OR, 2.353; CI95, 1.426-3.884; P = .001) and general surgeons (OR, 4.986; CI95, 2.890-8.604; P < .001) used antibiotic prophylaxis more appropriately. Patients not covered by health insurance (OR, 0.417; CI95 0.225-0.772; P < .001) were associated with inappropriate prophylaxis. CONCLUSION: Given the high frequency of antibiotics prescribed for surgical prophylaxis in Turkey, adherence to surgical prophylaxis guidelines is urgently needed.     

Appropriateness of antibiotic prophylaxis for major surgery in Korea.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the appropriateness of antibiotic prophylaxis regimens for major surgery in Korea. DESIGN: Retrospective study using a written survey for each patient who underwent arthroplasty, colon surgery, or hysterectomy. SETTING: Six tertiary hospitals in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province. PATIENTS: From each hospital, a maximum of 150 patients who underwent each type of surgery were randomly chosen for the study. RESULTS: Of 2,644 eligible patients, 1,914 patients were included in the analysis; 677 of these patients underwent arthroplasty, 578 underwent colon surgery, and 659 underwent hysterectomy. Nineteen patients were excluded from the analyses of the class and number of antibiotics used for prophylaxis because they underwent multiple surgeries at different sites. For each of the 1,895 remaining patients, antibiotic prophylaxis involved a mean (+/-SD) of 2.8 +/- 0.9 classes of antibiotics. The most commonly prescribed agents were cephalosporins (prescribed for 1,875 [98.9%] of the patients) and aminoglycosides (1,404 [74.1%]). A total of 1,574 (83.1%) of patients received at least 2 classes of antibiotics simultaneously. Only 15 (0.8%) of 1,895 patients received antibiotic prophylaxis in accordance with published guidelines. Of 506 patients for whom the initial dose of antibiotics was evaluated, 374 (73.9%) received an appropriate initial dose. Of the 1,676 patients whose medical records included information about antibiotic administration relative to the time of surgery, only 188 (11.2%) received antibiotic prophylaxis an hour or less before the surgical incision was made. Of the 1,748 patients whose medical records included information about duration of surgery, antibiotic prophylaxis was discontinued 24 hours or less after surgery for only 3 (0.2%) of the patients. CONCLUSION: Most patients who had major surgery in Korea received inappropriate antibiotic prophylaxis. Measures to improve the appropriateness of antibiotic prophylaxis are urgently required.     

预防性抗生素应用对肝硬化并消化道出血患者医院感染的影响

目的　评估预防性抗生素应用对肝硬化并消化道出血患者医院感染的影响。方法　对 10 2例肝硬化并消化道出血患者随机分为预防性抗生素应用组 (A组 )和对照组 (B组 ) ,A组患者入院后给予抗生素预防性应用 (环丙沙星或哌拉西林 )至出血停止后 3d;B组除常规治疗外 ,未预防性应用抗生素 ;统计两组在医院感染率和死亡率的差异。结果　 A组医院感染率为 2 0 .4 % ,B组医院感染率为 5 8.3% ,两组比较差异有显著性 (P<0 .0 0 1) ;医院感染者再出血率为 6 1.5 % ,高于无感染者的 17.5 % (P<0 .0 0 1) ,表明医院感染与再出血率有关 ;A组死亡率为2 0 .4 % ,低于 B组的 4 7.9% (P<0 .0 0 1)。结论　肝硬化并消化道出血患者预防性抗生素应用 ,可降低医院感染发生率和再出血率 ,以提高患者的生存率。     

普外科围手术期抗菌药物应用的调查

目的探讨普外科围手术期抗菌药物的应用现状及合理性. 方法对190例患者围手术期抗菌药物应用进行回顾性分析. 结果 190例患者全部使用了抗菌药物,其中预防用药占79.47%,治疗用药占20.53%;术后单用1种和应用二联、三联和四联抗菌药物的分别占28.42%、67.37%、3.16%、1.05%,术后预防性使用抗菌药物时间最长17 d,其中64.24%的患者用药时间≥4 d. 结论在围手术期抗菌药物的使用中存在着不合理之处,应予避免.     

Implementing a policy for pneumococcal prophylaxis in a haematology unit after splenectomy.

People who have had a splenectomy for any reason are 40 times more likely to have an overwhelming infection, especially pneumococcal infection, and 17 times more likely to suffer fatal sepsis. The incidence of such life threatening infections is reduced by prophylactic immunisation with polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine and long term antibiotic prophylaxis or instituting prompt antibiotic treatment in the event of fever. This haematology unit agreed a policy of immunisation and antibiotic prophylaxis in June 1988 for all patients undergoing elective splenectomy. The success of this policy was audited in July 1993 by a retrospective analysis of patients' case notes. Seventy four patients were identified as having had a splenectomy, 54 (73%) before June 1988, of whom only 13 (24%) had received both pneumococcal immunisation and antibiotic prophylaxis before implementation of the agreed policy. At the time of audit, 46/74 (62%) patients were recorded as having received immunisation and 64/74 (86%) as receiving antibiotic prophylaxis or a supply of antibiotics to take in the event of a fever. All but one of the 20 patients who had a splenectomy after June 1988, since implementation of the agreed policy, received immunisation and antibiotic prophylaxis. The authors conclude that establishment of a formal agreed policy for pneumococcal prophylaxis for patients undergoing splenectomy has improved the quality of care.     

甲状腺、乳腺患者围手术期抗菌药物预防性应用分析

目的了解我院甲状腺、乳腺患者围手术期抗菌药物应用现状。方法收集我院临床药师参与外科查房后甲状腺、乳腺外科病房2010年1月～3月手术病历120份,统计分析其围手术期抗菌药物应用情况。结果甲状腺、乳腺手术患者围手术期抗菌药物使用率为100%,均采用静脉给药方式。其中给药时机不合理为5%,无指征用药81.7%,抗菌药物选择不合理30%,抗菌药物预防使用疗程平均1.14d。结论我院围手术期预防性应用抗菌药物其选药、用药时机、用法用量趋于合理,但仍存在无指征使用抗菌药物,抗菌药物高选,用药疗程偏长等问题,临床药师的监督作用仍需加强。     

经尿道前列腺电切术前无菌尿的患者行预防性抗菌的合理性评价

目的研究无菌尿的老年患者,经尿道前列腺电切术(TURP)时接受预防性抗菌方案的疗效。方法120例TURP术前无菌尿的良性前列腺增生老年患者随机分为两组,抗生素组(60例)根据临床经验行静脉抗菌方案预防感染(4 d),对照组(60例)则输注5%葡萄糖盐溶液。比较两组TURP术后感染相关性指标。结果抗生素组在术后第4天的菌尿检出率低于对照组(P<0.05),但两组术后第28天的菌尿率及其他感染相关性并发症比较差异无统计学意义。患者TURP术后第4天菌尿与术后长期菌尿、菌血症或尿路感染、前列腺菌群检出率关系不密切。结论抗生素可以预防无菌尿老年患者TURP术后早期出现菌尿,但不能改善感染性并发症的发生率。经验性用药对不同来源分离的病菌不十分敏感。     

Prevention of infection after induced abortion: release date October 2010: SFP guideline 20102

One known complication of induced abortion is upper genital tract infection, which is relatively uncommon in the current era of safe, legal abortion. Currently, rates of upper genital tract infection in the setting of legal induced abortion in the United States are generally less than 1%. Randomized controlled trials support the use of prophylactic antibiotics for surgical abortion in the first trimester. For medical abortion, treatment-dose antibiotics may lower the risk of serious infection. However, the number-needed-to-treat is high. Consequently, the balance of risk and benefits warrants further investigation. Perioperative oral doxycycline given up to 12 h before a surgical abortion appears to effectively reduce infectious risk. Antibiotics that are continued after the procedure for extended durations meet the definition for a treatment regimen rather than a prophylactic regimen. Prophylactic efficacy of antibiotics begun after abortion has not been demonstrated in controlled trials. Thus, the current evidence supports pre-procedure but not post-procedure antibiotics for the purpose of prophylaxis. No controlled studies have examined the efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis for induced surgical abortion beyond 15 weeks of gestation. The risk of infection is not altered when an intrauterine device is inserted immediately post-procedure. The presence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae or acute cervicitis carries a significant risk of upper genital tract infection; this risk is significantly reduced with antibiotic prophylaxis. Women with bacterial vaginosis (BV) also have an elevated risk of post-procedural infection as compared with women without BV; however, additional prophylactic antibiotics for women with known BV has not been shown to reduce their risk further than with use of typical pre-procedure antibiotic prophylaxis. Accordingly, evidence to support pre-procedure screening for BV is lacking. Neither povidone-iodine nor chlorhexidine have been shown to alter the risk of infection when used as cervicovaginal preparation. However, chlorhexidine appears to be more effective than povidone iodine at reducing bacteria within the vagina. The Society of Family Planning recommends the routine use of antibiotic prophylaxis, preferably with doxycycline, before surgical abortion. Use of treatment doses of antibiotics with medical abortion may decrease the rare risk of serious infection but universal requirement for such treatment has not been established.     

Nosocomial infections and misuse of antibiotics in a provincial community hospital, Saudi Arabia

The incidence of nosocomial infection and prevalence of antibiotic misuse were studied in a 174-bed community hospital in Saudi Arabia over a six-month period. Of 2445 patients admitted, 8.5% developed nosocomial infection, the rates were highest for nursery (35.8%), intensive care (19.8%), gynaecological (16.2%) and surgical (11.7%) patients. Urinary tract (31.3%), wound (27.1%) and blood (14.9%) infections accounted for more than 70% of the infections. Staphylococcus aureus (23%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11%), caused more than 90% of the infections. The majority of the bacterial pathogens (79%) were multi-drug resistant. Over 80% of patients were administered prophylactic and/or therapeutic antibiotics, with 53% receiving multiple antibiotics; 72% of the antibiotics were judged to be misused. Both prophylaxis and treatment were mostly misguided and clinically unwarranted. Host- and hospital-associated infection risk factors were identified. The minimum government cost estimates for the nosocomial infections and misused antibiotics were US $273 180 and $565 603, respectively. The findings emphasize the need for effective measures to reduce both the high infection rates and widespread antibiotic misusage in the hospital. Such measures should include institution of an effective infection control committee and a hospital antibiotic policy.     

肝硬化急性上消化道出血患者医院感染的预防性抗生素应用

目的 探讨预防性抗生素应用对肝硬化并发急性上消化道出血患者治疗及预后的影响.方法 将96例肝硬化并发上消化道出血患者分为预防性抗生素应用组(预防组)和对照组两组.预防组患者入院后除常规治疗外,给予抗生素预防性应用(头孢曲松或氟喹诺酮类);对照组未预防性应用抗生素,统计两组在医院感染率、再出血率、多脏器功能衰竭发生率和病死率的差异.结果 预防组医院感染率18.0%,对照组为41.3%,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).医院感染者再出血率为53.6%,高于无感染者的13.2%(P<0.01),表明医院感染与再出血率有关.预防组多脏器功能衰竭发生率22.0%,对照组发生率50.0%(P<0.01).预防组死亡率为16.0%,低于对照组的37.0%(P<0.05).结论 肝硬化并发上消化道出血患者预防性抗生素应用,可降低医院感染发生率和再出血率,提高患者的生存率.     

Epidemiology of Antibiotic Use for Urinary Tract Infection in Nursing Home Residents

ObjectivesDescribe antibiotic use for urinary tract infection (UTI) among a large cohort of US nursing home residents.DesignAnalysis of data from a multistate, 1-day point prevalence survey of antimicrobial use performed between April and October 2017.Setting and participantsResidents of 161 nursing homes in 10 US states of the Emerging Infections Program (EIP).MethodsEIP staff reviewed nursing home medical records to collect data on systemic antimicrobial drugs received by residents, including therapeutic site, rationale for use, and planned duration. For drugs with the therapeutic site documented as urinary tract, pooled mean and nursing home–specific prevalence rates were calculated per 100 nursing home residents, and proportion of drugs by selected characteristics were reported. Data were analyzed in SAS, version 9.4.ResultsAmong 15,276 residents, 407 received 424 antibiotics for UTI. The pooled mean prevalence rate of antibiotic use for UTI was 2.66 per 100 residents; nursing home–specific rates ranged from 0 to 13.6. One-quarter of antibiotics were prescribed for UTI prophylaxis, with a median planned duration of 111 days compared with 7 days when prescribed for UTI treatment (P < .001). Fluoroquinolones were the most common (18%) drug class used.Conclusions and ImplicationsOne in 38 residents was receiving an antibiotic for UTI on a given day, and nursing home–specific prevalence rates varied by more than 10-fold. UTI prophylaxis was common with a long planned duration, despite limited evidence to support this practice among older persons in nursing homes. The planned duration was ≥7 days for half of antibiotics prescribed for treatment of a UTI. Fluoroquinolones were the most commonly used antibiotics, despite their association with significant adverse events, particularly in a frail and older adult population. These findings help to identify priority practices for nursing home antibiotic stewardship.