Roles and regulation of glutamate transporters in the central nervous system

1. Glutamate transporters (also known as excitatory amino acid transporters or EAAT) are solely responsible for the removal of the excitatory neurotransmitter l-glutamate (Glu) from the extracellular space and, thus, permit normal transmission, as well as preventing cell death due to the excessive activation of Glu receptors. 2. Five subtypes of glutamate transporter (EAAT1-5) exist, possessing distinct pharmacology, cellular localization and modulatory mechanisms. 3. Experimental inhibition of EAAT activity in vitro and in vivo results in increased extracellular concentrations of Glu and in neuronal death via excitotoxicity, highlighting the importance of EAAT in normal excitatory neurotransmission. 4. Dysfunction of EAAT may contribute to the pathology of both acute neuronal injury and chronic neurodegenerative conditions, so correction of EAAT function under these conditions may provide a valuable therapeutic strategy. 5. The present review describes basic pharmacological studies that allow new insights into EAAT function and suggest possible strategies for the therapeutic modulation of EAAT.     

Expression of GFP-tagged neuronal glutamate transporters in cerebellar Purkinje neurons

Of the five excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) identified, two genes are expressed by neurons (EAAT3 and EAAT4) and give rise to transporters confined to neuronal cell bodies and dendrites. At an ultrastructural level, EAAT3 and EAAT4 proteins are clustered at the edges of postsynaptic densities of excitatory synapses. This pattern of localization suggests that postsynaptic EAATs may help to limit spillover of glutamate from excitatory synapses. In an effort to study transporter localization in living neurons and ultimately to manipulate uptake at intact synapses, we have developed viral reagents encoding neuronal EAATs tagged with GFP. We demonstrate that these fusion proteins are capable of Na(+)-dependent glutamate uptake, that they generate ionic conductances indistinguishable from their wild-type counterparts, and that GFP does not alter their glutamate dose-dependence. Two-photon microscopy was used to examine fusion protein expression in Purkinje neurons in acute cerebellar slices. Both EAAT3-GFP and EAAT4-GFP were observed at high levels in the dendritic spines of transfected Purkinje neurons. These findings indicate that functional EAAT fusion proteins can be synthesized and appropriately trafficked to postsynaptic compartments. Furthermore, they validate a powerful system for looking at EAAT function in situ.     

II、III组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体激动剂对脂多糖抑制C6胶质瘤细胞摄取谷氨酸的影响

目的：探讨II、III组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体（metabotropic glutamate receptors，mGluRs）激动剂对脂多糖（LPS）抑制C6胶质瘤细胞摄取谷氨酸（glutamate，GIu）的影响。方法：应用同位素标记法测定C6胶质瘤细胞对[^3H]-D，L-Glu的摄取。应用Hoechst染色法、噻唑蓝比色法（MTT）分别检测C6胶质瘤细胞的亡、细胞活力。结果：LPS（4、6μg／mL）显著抑制C6胶质瘤细胞摄取[^3H]-D，L-Glu，抑制率分别达17．6％和22．2％。Ⅱ组mGluRs激动剂DCG-IV100μmol／L和III组mGluRs激动剂L-AP4 100pznol／L逆转LlX3对C6胶质瘤细胞摄取[^3H]．D，L-GIu的抑制作用，这种逆转作用分别被Ⅱ、ⅡI组mGluRs拮抗剂APICA和MSOP取消。结论：DCG-IV和L-AP引起的C6胶质瘤细胞Glu摄取抑制，提示II、III组mGluRs激动剂通过促进Glu摄取，降低细胞外Glu浓度，从而发挥神经保护作用。     

Ⅱ、Ⅲ组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体激动剂逆转1-甲基-4-苯基吡啶离子抑制星形胶质细胞摄取谷氨酸

目的 :探讨Ⅱ、Ⅲ组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体(metabotropicglutamatereceptors ,mGluRs)激动剂对 1 甲基 4 苯基吡啶离子 (1 methyl 4 phenylpyridinium ,MPP )抑制星形胶质细胞摄取谷氨酸 (Glu)的影响。方法 :应用同位素标记法测定星形胶质细胞对培养液中 [3 H] D ,L 谷氨酸的摄取 ,应用四氮唑 (MTT)比色法检测星形胶质细胞的活性。结果 :MPP 15 0、2 0 0 μmol·L-1可以明显抑制星形胶质细胞摄取Glu ,抑制率达 5 8.3%和 70 .1% ,但并不影响细胞活性 ;Ⅱ组mGluRs激动剂 (2S ,2’R ,3’R) 2 (2’ ,3’ dicar boxycyclopropyl)glycine (DCG IV ) 0 .1、 1、 10 ,10 0 μmol·L-1和Ⅲ组mGluRs激动剂L( ) 2 amino 4 phosphonobutyricacid (L AP4 ) 1、10、10 0 μmol·L-1可以逆转MPP 对星形胶质细胞摄取Glu的抑制作用。结论 :MPP 抑制星形胶质细胞摄取Glu可能与直接影响谷氨酸转运体 (GluTs)的功能有关 ,激活星形胶质细胞上的Ⅱ、Ⅲ组mGluRs可以通过促进GluTs摄取Glu、进而降低细胞外液的Glu浓度而发挥神经保护作用。     

Blockade of excitatory amino acid transporters in the rat hippocampus results in enhanced activation of group I and group III metabotropic glutamate receptors

The idea that excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) can control the activation of specific metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) was investigated in rat hippocampal slices. Using the accumulation of inositol phosphates as a measure of group I mGluR activity, we have shown that the broad spectrum, non-transportable EAAT blocker, TBOA, produces a significant shift to the left of agonist concentration-response curves. Moreover, this increase in potency did not occur if endogenous glutamate was enzymatically removed, suggesting a glutamate-dependent mechanism. This shift in potency was shown to be NMDA and group II mGlu receptor independent. Additionally, experiments with selective antagonists indicated that the group I receptor responsible for the stimulation of inositol phosphate production in this preparation is likely to be mGluR5. Inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cyclic AMP (cAMP) production was used as an index of group II/III mGluR activity. TBOA produced a rightward shift of the forskolin concentration-response curve. A group III, but not a group II, mGluR agonist also produced this effect, suggesting that the TBOA-mediated increase in glutamate activates a receptor, which appears to be a member of the group III mGluR subset. This was confirmed by the observation that an antagonist of group III mGluRs, prevented the TBOA-induced rightward shift in forskolin potency. These results provide evidence of a role for EAATs in the regulation of mGluR5 and group III mGluRs in the rat hippocampus, which may have therapeutic implications.     

Ⅱ、Ⅲ组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体激动剂逆转1-甲基-4-苯基吡啶离子抑制C6胶质瘤细胞摄取谷氨酸

目的：探讨Ⅱ、Ⅲ组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体(metabotropic glutamate receptors，mGluRs)激动剂对1-甲基-4-苯基吡啶离子(1-metyl-4-phenylpyridinium，MPP~ )抑制C6胶质瘤细胞摄取谷氨酸(glutamate，Glu)的影响。方法：应用同位素标记法测定C6胶质瘤细胞对培养液中[~3H]-D，L-谷氨酸的摄取。结果：Ⅱ组mGluRs激动剂(2S，2’R，3’R)-2-(2’，3’-di-carboxycyclopropyl)glycine(DCG-Ⅳ)和Ⅲ组mGluRs激动刺L( )-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid(LAP4)100μmol·L~(-1)可以逆转MPP~ 抑制C6胶质瘤细胞摄取Glu的作用，而Ⅱ组mGluRs拮抗剂(RS)-1-Amino-5-phosphonoinan-1-carboxylic acid(APICA)和Ⅲ组mGluRs拮抗剂(RS)-α-methvlserine-O-phosphate(MSOP)可以完全阻断其激动剂的逆转作用。 结论：激活C6胶质瘤细胞上的Ⅱ、Ⅲ组mGluRs可以通过促进谷氨酸转运体摄取Glu、进而降低细胞外液的Glu浓度。     

兴奋性氨基酸转运体研究进展

兴奋性氨基酸转运体 (EAAT)位于突触前膜、突触囊泡和神经胶质细胞膜上。它们对于兴奋性氨基酸的再循环 ,兴奋性信号的终止以及保护神经细胞免受兴奋性毒性损害具有特别重要的意义。本文介绍EAAT研究进展     

总丹酚酸的抗脑缺血和抑制谷氨酸释放作用

采用体内,体外方法探讨总丹酚酸对脑缺血的影响及可能机理. 在大鼠大脑中动脉阻断模型上,阻断后2 h ip总丹酚酸12.5-25 mg·kg^-1可缩小阻断24 h后的脑梗死面积,减轻脑水肿. 离体研究发现,总丹酚酸0.01-1 μg·L^-1可抑制小鼠脑突触体谷氨酸释放,不影响大鼠脑皮层神经细胞内Ca²⁺浓度. 结果说明总丹酚酸有抗脑缺血作用,其机理可能与抑制谷氨酸的释放有关.     

On the configuration of the receptors for excitatory amino acids

Separate receptors are recognized for the excitation of mammalian neurones by (a) L-glutamic and quisqualic acids and (b) N-methyl-D-aspartic (NMDA), and other amino acids which have conformationally restricted molecules. Several other compounds, both agonists and antagonists, have been examined, and it is concluded that (i) the NMDA receptor reacts preferentially with substances in a relatively extended configuration, (ii) the glutamate/quisqualate receptor prefers folded molecules and (iii) the distance separating the amino group from the distal anionic function is the critical one determining receptor preference.     

神经肌肉接头前阻断剂川楝素抑制大鼠大脑皮层突触体谷氨酸释放(英文)

目的　阐释川楝素的作用机制 ,为了解递质解释的基本过程提供线索。方法　以大鼠大脑皮层匀浆经密度梯度离心分离获得的突触体作为研究标本 ,分别施加 5 0mmol·L- 1KCl,1.5 μmol·L- 1卡西霉素或 7.5mmol·L- 14 氨基吡啶触发谷氨酸 (Glu)释放。通过检测由Glu氧化脱氢反应与NAD+ 生成的NADH荧光变化测定Glu释放量。结果　川楝素浓度、时间依赖地显著抑制由KCl诱发的Glu释放 ,并主要抑制钙依赖性释放 ;由卡西霉素直接提升胞内钙离子浓度而诱发的Glu释放也被川楝素明显抑制。结论川楝素抑制中枢突触Glu释放 ,该效应与其导致的递质释放机制中钙离子敏感性降低有关。     

成人睾丸中一种新的calpastatin同源蛋白的克隆和分析

目的:克隆人精子发生相关的基因.方法:使用人胚胎和成人睾丸cDNA探针与本室制作的人睾丸dDNA微阵列杂交,差异杂交的克隆进行序列测定和分析.结果:发现Calpastatin在睾丸中表达的一种新的同源蛋白,在睾丸中高度表达.结论:calpastatin在睾丸中是以一种新的同源蛋白形式表达,可能与精子发生相关.     

亲代谢型谷氨酸受体和相关神经疾病

谷氨酸的过量释放在多种神经系统疾病的发生发展过程中发挥着重要作用。虽然离子型谷氨酸受体拮抗剂在动物模型中取得了一定的治疗效果,但因其同时阻断了正常的兴奋性传递,限制了这类化合物的临床应用;而mG luR s通过突触前机制抑制谷氨酸的释放,有望成为某些神经系统疾病治疗的新靶点。该文就近年来国内外mG luR s在这些神经疾病中的研究进展作一综述。     

转运蛋白在药物肝胆转运中的重要作用转运蛋白在药物肝胆转运中的重要作用

近年来随着生物膜转运相关技术的进步,在肝中证明存在许多与药物胞内摄取和胞外分泌相关的转运蛋白,它们在药物肝胆转运中的重要性也渐渐被重视。1994年前后,相继克隆出各种药物转运蛋白的基因,并通过基因转染细胞和基因敲除动物的研究,对载体介导膜转运的认识提高到了分子基因     

Effects of glutamate transport substrates and glutamate receptor ligands on the activity of Na-/K(+)-ATPase in brain tissue in vitro

1. It has been suggested that Na+/K(+)-ATPase and Na(+)-dependent glutamate transport (GluT) are tightly linked in brain tissue. In the present study, we have investigated Na+/K(+)-ATPase activity using Rb+ uptake by 'minislices' (prisms) of the cerebral cortex. This preparation preserves the morphology of neurons, synapses and astrocytes and is known to possess potent GluT that has been well characterized. Uptake of Rb+ was determined by estimating Rb+ in aqueous extracts of the minislices, using atomic absorption spectroscopy. 2. We determined the potencies of several known substrates/inhibitors of GluT, such as L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylate (LtPDC), DL-threo-3-benzyloxyaspartic acid, (2S,3S,4R)-2-(carboxycyclopropyl)-glycine (L-CCG III) and L-anti,endo-3,4-methanopyrrolidine dicarboxylic acid, as inhibitors of [3H]-L-glutamate uptake by cortical prisms. In addition, we established the susceptibility of GluT, measured as [3H]-L-glutamate uptake in brain cortical prisms, to the inhibition of Na+/K(+)-ATPase by ouabain. Then, we tested the hypothesis that the Na+/K(+)-ATPase (measured as Rb+ uptake) can respond to changes in the activity of GluT produced by using GluT substrates as GluT-specific pharmacological tools. 3. The Na+/K(+)-ATPase inhibitor ouabain completely blocked Rb+ uptake (IC50 = 17 micromol/L), but it also potently inhibited a fraction of GluT (approximately 50% of [3H]-L-glutamate uptake was eliminated; IC50 < 1 micromol/L). 4. None of the most commonly used GluT substrates and inhibitors, such as L-aspartate, D-aspartate, L-CCG III and LtPDC (all at 500 micromol/L), produced any significant changes in Rb+ uptake. 5. The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonists (R,S)-(tetrazol-5-yl)-glycine and NMDA decreased Rb+ uptake in a manner compatible with their known neurotoxic actions. 6. None of the agonists or antagonists for any of the other major classes of glutamate receptors caused significant changes in Rb+ uptake. 7. We conclude that, even if a subpopulation of glutamate transporters in the rat cerebral cortex may be intimately linked to a fraction of Na+/K(+)-ATPase, it is not possible, under the present experimental conditions, to detect regulation of Na+/K(+)-ATPase by GluT.     

Differentiation of excitatory amino acid receptors in the rat caudal trigeminal nucleus: a microiontophoretic study

The excitatory amino acid antagonist, D-alpha-aminoadipate, was found to be a potent antagonist of responses to N-methyl-D-aspartate and L-aspartate, but less potent against L-glutamate responses of neurones in the rat caudal trigeminal nucleus. The responses to quisqualate and kainate were relatively unaffected by D-alpha-aminoadipate, but were antagonized by the two antagonists cis-2,3-piperidine dicarboxylate and gamma-D-glutamylglycine. These two antagonists had effectively similar spectra of activity. It is concluded that there is a distinct N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis, and that kainate and quisqualate may act on a different, but common, receptor. Exogenously applied L-glutamate appears to act at both of these receptors, but exogenously applied L-aspartate appears to act almost exclusively on a D-alpha-aminoadipate sensitive site that may be the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. The kainate/quisqualate receptor is thought to be involved in the synaptic excitation of neurones in the caudal trigeminal nucleus by non-noxious mechanical stimuli.     

Inhibition by ethanol of excitatory amino acid receptors and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at rat locus coeruleus neurons

The frequency of spontaneous action potentials of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons was recorded extracellularly in pontine slices of the rat brain. Ethanol (1–100 mM) elevated the firing rate in most neurons; this effect was concentration-dependent. (S)--amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA; 0.03–1 M), kainate ( 0.1–3 M), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA; 1–30 M), substance P 0.01–1 M, nicotine 0.1–10 M and ,-methylene ATP ,-meATP; 0.3–30 M, all increased the firing. Application of ethanol g10–100 mM to the superfusion medium for 10 min, reproducibly and concentration-dependently inhibited the facilitatory effect of NMDA g10 M. However, the inhibitory effect of ethanol (100 mM) decreased during a 30-min superfusion period and after the washout of ethanol the sensitivity of LC neurons to NMDA (10 M) tended to overshoot above their initial level. Although NMDA was more potent in the absence than in the presence of external Mg²⁺, ethanol (100 mM) continued to depress the facilitatory effect of a low concentration of NMDA (EM) in a Mg²⁺-free medium. By contrast, in a medium containing normal Mg²⁺, ethanol (100 mM) failed to significantly interfere with the increase in firing rate induced by a high concentration of NMDA (30 M). The effects of kainate (0.5 M), AMPA (0.3 M) and nicotine (1 M) were also depressed by ethanol (100 M), while the effects of substance P (0.03 M) and ,-meATP (30 M) were not changed. In conclusion, ethanol selectively counteracts the opening of cationic channels caused by excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptor agonists and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists. During a longer lasting incubation with ethanol, the inhibition of the NMDA-induced excitatory effect declines, indicating the development of tolerance. Correspondence to: P. Illes at the above address     

Diesel exhaust particles disturb gene expression in mouse testis

Inhalation of diesel exhaust particles (DEP) has been found to reduce sperm production. There is a possibility that DEP exposure elicits changes in gene expression in testis. To identify the alteration of gene expression resulting from DEP exposure, we constructed subtracted cDNA libraries from mouse testis using the suppression subtractive hybridization method. We isolated 16 candidate clones whose expression levels changed after exposure. Some of these candidates were highly similar to known testis-specific genes. Some of the clones also seemed to correlate with spermatogenesis. Northern blot analysis revealed that DEP exposure changed the expression levels of several clones in a dose-dependent manner. For example, the expression of clone R8, which was very similar to human XRRA1, increased by 2.3-fold in testis after DEP exposure. On the other hand, the expressions of long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase 6 (Acsl6) and serine/threonine kinase 35 reduced by 0.3-fold. These results indicated that some constituents of DEP alter gene expression in the testis.     

6-羟基多巴胺诱导PC12细胞释放谷氨酸及死亡不受Ⅰ组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体配基的影响(英文)

目的:探讨Ⅰ组亲代谢型谷氨酸受体(mGluR)配基对6-羟基多巴胺(6-OHDA)诱导的PC12细胞死亡及谷氨酸(Glu)释放的影响。方法:培养PC12细胞,以100μmol/LⅠ组mGluR激动剂(RS)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine(DHPG)和拮抗剂DL-2-amino-3-phosphonopropionic acid(DL-AP3)预先剌激细胞1h,再加入6-OHDA100μmol/L共孵育24h,显微镜下观察细胞形态变化,用TUNEL法检测凋亡细胞,用噻唑蓝(MTT)法检测细胞存活率,并用高效液相色谱检测Glu的释放量。结果:6-OHDA 降低PC12细胞存活率(P<0.01),其诱导的Glu释放呈浓度和时间依赖性。Ⅰ组mGluR配基不能减少6-OHDA引起的PC12细胞死亡,也不影响6OHDA引起的Glu释放量。结论:Ⅰ组mGluR配基对6-OHDA引起死亡的PC12细胞无保护作用。     

转运体和核受体影响药物代谢的研究进展

转运体是存在于体内几乎所有器官上的有转运功能的蛋白,对药物在体内的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄有非常重要的作用.而核受体是存在于细胞内的配体依赖性转录因子,可以激活配体影响代谢酶和转运体的表达和活性,进而影响药物在机体内代谢.本文综述了转运体和核受体家族中几个重要的成员以及它们对药物代谢影响的研究进展.