呈局灶节段性肾小球硬化的IgA肾病临床病理特点

目的探讨呈局灶节段性肾小球硬化（FSGS）的IgA肾病（IgAN）的临床和病理特点。方法选取我院1988年1月至2002年2月经肾活检确诊为IgAN的患者587例，其中呈FSGS85例，呈弥漫性系膜增生性肾小球肾炎（MsPGN）162例，呈弥漫性系膜增生性肾小球肾炎伴局灶节段性肾小球硬化（MsPGN伴FSGS）185例，比较3种类型IgAN临床和病理资料。结果FSGS型IgAN占同期所有IgAN的14．5％，临床类型以大量蛋白尿型为主，占37．64％。肾小球球囊黏连发生率高达74．12％，小管间质纤维化发生率97．65％，病理分级以LeeⅣ～Ⅴ级为主，免疫病理以IgA—MG型为主，与MsPGN伴FSGS型和MsPGN型的IgAN相比，FSGS型IgAN病程较长，高血压、肾功能不全发生率较高（P〈0．05），而血尿的发生率与后两者无明显区别。结论呈FSGS型IgAN大量蛋白尿、高血压、肾功能不全的发生率高，病变较重，预后较差。     

环孢素A在不同病理类型慢性肾小球疾病治疗中的应用进展

慢性肾小球疾病可分为原发性和继发性,原发性肾小球疾病中常见的病理类型包括以下5种：膜性肾病（membranous nephropathy,MN）、微小病变型肾病（minimal change glomerulonephropathy,MCD）、系膜增殖性肾小球肾炎（mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis,MsPGN,包括IgA系膜增殖性肾小球肾炎和非IgA系膜增殖性肾小球肾炎）、局灶节段性肾小球硬化（focal segmental glomerular sclerosis,FSGS）和膜增殖性肾小球肾炎（membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis,MPGN）,常见的继发性肾小球疾病的病理类型有狼疮肾炎、过敏性紫癜性肾炎、乙型肝炎病毒相关性肾炎等.     

IgA肾病中医辨证分型治疗新探

IgA肾病（IgAN）系指肾小球系膜区以IgA为主的免疫球蛋白沉积为免疫病理特征的一组肾小球疾病,是我国最常见的原发性肾小球疾病,约占肾活检病例的1／3,在确诊后5～25年内有20％-40％的患者可发展为慢性肾衰竭。IgA肾病临床表现多数以血尿为主,可伴有少量蛋白尿、大量蛋白尿或肾病综合征,少数病人可见急进性肾炎综合征。     

尿α1-微球蛋白放免测定对系膜增生性肾炎的临床评价

系膜增生性肾小球肾炎(mesangial proliferatiye glomerulonephritis,MsPGN)为我国最常见的病理类型,占原发性肾小球肾炎之首[1].包括IgA肾病和非 IgA 系膜增生性肾小球肾炎.决定肾小球疾病预后的重要因素是肾活检病理改变的严重程度[2].肾小管在肾小球病变过程中常有不同程度的受累,在肾组织学改变诸因素中,肾小管-间质病变是多因素分析中预测病人的最佳指标[2,3].肾小球疾病的病理资料只有通过有创性肾穿刺病理活检才能获得,从技术要求和病人可接受性,在临床上难以普遍开展.本文分析MsPGN病人尿α1-微球蛋白(α1- MG)的变化,并与伴肾小管-间质病理损害进行比较,探讨α1- MG检测在MsPGN中的临床意义.     

122例老年人肾脏病的临床与病理分析

目的 探讨老年人肾脏病的临床与病理.回顾性分析122例住院行肾活检的老年人临床与病理资料。结果 ①临床特点：以肾病综合征最为常见，其次为慢性肾炎综合征、慢性肾功能不全，急性肾功能不全及发作性肉眼血尿较少见。②病理类型特点：原发性肾小球疾病占60．66％，以膜性肾病最为多见（19．67％）；继发性肾小球疾病占30．34％，以糖尿病肾病最为多见（9．02％）；肾小管－间质病变中间质性肾炎较多见（6．56％）。③病理改变特点：与青壮年相比，肾小管萎缩、间质炎细胞浸润、间质纤维化、血管壁增厚更为多见。④临床特点与病理类型的关系：以肾病综合征为临床表现者，病理类型原发性者以膜性肾病为主，继发性者以糖尿病肾病为主；以慢性肾炎综合征或慢性肾功能不全为临床表现者病理类型以IgA肾病为主；发作性肉眼血尿只见于系膜增殖性肾小球肾炎和IgA肾病；以急性肾功能不全为临床表现者病理上多为急性肾小管坏死或间质性肾炎。结论 老年人肾脏病临床与病理有着自己的特点：①临床上以肾病综合征最为常见。②病理类型上继发性肾小球疾病增加，糖尿病肾病成为主要原因。③病理改变特点上肾小管－间质及血管病变较重，可能与老龄化有关。④不同的临床表现可能提示不同的病理类型。     

肾活检患者451例临床与病理构成对比分析

目的 分析珠海地区肾脏疾病的病理及临床特点.方法 回顾性分析我院451例肾活检患者的临床及病理资料,探讨其病因、临床特点及病理类型的关系.结果 451例肾活检患者中,男、女高峰发病年龄为19～37岁,分别占59%及65%.原发性肾小球疾病共369例（占81.81%）,临床类型排在前3位的依次为无症状血尿、蛋白尿149例（占40.38%）、慢性肾小球肾炎104例（占28.18%）、肾病综合征76例（占20.60%）,病理类型排在前3位的依次为IgA肾病251例（占68.02%）、系膜增生性肾小球肾炎（MsPGN）33例（占8.94%）、微小病变型肾病（MCD）24例（占6.50%）;继发性肾小球疾病69例（占15.30%）,临床类型排在前3位的依次为狼疮肾炎26例（占37.68%）、乙型肝炎相关性肾小球肾炎24例（占34.78%）、紫癜肾炎9例（占13.04%）.结论 原发性肾小球疾病是目前最主要的肾小球疾病,IgA肾病在原发性肾脏疾病中发病率最高,继发性肾小球疾病中狼疮肾炎排在首位.     

98例特发性局灶节段性肾小球硬化的临床病理分析

目的：探讨温州地区特发性局灶节段性肾小球硬化（FSGS）的临床病理及流行病学特点。方法：对1993年2月～2007年9月间经我院肾内科病理室诊断的98例特发性FSGS进行回顾性总结,分析其临床表现、肾活检组织形态学及流行病学特点,进行临床与病理联系分析。结果：（1）98例特发性FSGS以20岁～45岁为发病高峰年龄（占59.1%）,占同期原发性肾小球疾病的3.6%及原发性肾病综合征的4.3%。（2）临床表现以肾病综合征（NS）最常见,占43例（43.9%）,发病时常并发高血压（49.0%）和慢性肾衰竭（35.7%）。肾衰竭组的肾病范围蛋白尿发生率、高血压的发生率及血尿酸水平明显高于肾功能正常组（P〈0.05）。（3）主要病理特征：76.5%患者伴有不同程度的肾小球球性硬化,其中球性硬化比例≥25%者占36.7%;82.7%患者伴不同程度的慢性肾小管间质病变,其中Ⅱ～Ⅲ级占15.3%。肾衰竭者Ⅱ～Ⅲ级肾小管间质病变比例较肾功能正常者高（28.6%vs10.0%,P〈0.05）。（4）肾小球球性硬化的比例与血清肌酐值、病程及年龄呈正相关（P〈0.05）,肾小管间质病变程度与Ccr呈负相关（P〈0.05）。球性硬化比例与肾小管间质病变程度呈正相关（P〈0.01）。结论：特发性FSGS在占本地区同期肾活检原发性肾小球疾病的3.6%,该病常并发高血压和慢性肾衰竭,病理上常见明显的肾小球球性硬化及慢性肾小管间质损害,慢性肾小管间质病变是影响患者预后的重要因素。     

919例肾活检资料流行病学分析

目的：了解河南北部农村地区肾活检资料的流行病学特点及病理类型与临床表现之间的联系。方法：回顾性分析1996年1月～2008年12月919例因肾脏疾病而行肾活检患者的性别、年龄、病理类型及临床表现。结果：本组患者做肾活检时的年龄16岁～72岁,平均（33.1±14.1）岁;男508例（55.3%）,女411例（45.7%）。16岁～50岁患者770例（83.8%）。除狼疮性肾炎（LN）外,大多数肾脏疾病多发于男性。在原发性肾小球疾病中,最常见的临床综合征是原发性肾病综合征（PNS）和慢性肾炎综合征（CNS）分别为43.3%、35.4%。在继发性肾脏疾病病变中,紫癜性肾炎（HSPN）最为常见,其次为LN。在表现肾病综合征的疾病中,最常见的病理类型分别为系膜增生性肾小球肾炎（MsPGN）、IgA肾病（IgAN）,分别为39.5%、18.4%;在表现慢性肾炎综合征的疾病中,最常见的病理类型分别为IgAN（39.6%）,MsP（32.4%）。结论：河南北部农村地区最常见的肾小球疾病病理多为MsPGN;16岁～40岁男性是肾小球疾病的高发人群;临床多表现为肾病综合征。     

儿童隐匿性肾炎的临床和病理研究

目的：探讨儿童隐匿性肾炎的临床和肾组织病理改变特点及其关系。方法：回顾性分析肾活检的323例隐匿性肾炎患儿的临床和肾组织病理改变情况。结果：323例隐匿性肾炎患儿中，单纯性血尿229例，单纯性蛋白尿19例，血尿伴蛋白尿75例。肾组织病理改变类型包括：轻微病变103例（31，89％）、基本正常74例（22．91％）、IgA肾病（IgAN）73例（22．60％）、薄基底膜病（TBMN）27例（8．36％）、系膜增生性肾炎（MsPGN）18例（5．57％）、局灶增生性肾炎（FPGN）10例（3．10％）、膜性肾病（MN）8例（2，48％）、局灶节段肾小球硬化（舢）8例（2．48％）、微小病变（MCD）1例（0，31％）、IgM肾病（IgMN）1例（0．31％）。单纯性血尿组中肾组织结构基本正常的比例较血尿伴蛋白尿组明显偏高（P〈0，01）；血尿伴蛋白尿组中IgAN的比例高于单纯性血尿组和单纯性蛋白尿组（分别P〈0．01、P〈0．05）。IgAN的Lee分级：单纯性血尿组中Ⅰ、Ⅱ级85．00％，Ⅲ级及以上15．00％；血尿伴蛋白尿组中Ⅰ、Ⅱ级58．10％，Ⅲ级及以上41．90％，明显高于单纯性血尿组（x^2=6．47，P〈0．05）。结论：儿童隐匿性肾炎的病理以轻微病变、基本正常、IgAN为常见表现，血尿伴蛋白尿患儿病变较单纯性血尿患儿为重。     

IgA肾病的病理与临床

IgA肾病（IgA nephropathy）是我国最常见的肾小球疾病,约占原发肾小球疾病的30％～40％。自从40多年前Berger首次报道IgA肾病以来,越来越多的学者认为IgA肾病不是单一疾病,而是一组以IgA为主的免疫球蛋白颗粒状弥漫沉积在肾小球系膜区及毛细血管袢的临床综合征。IgA肾病的临床表现可从无症状镜下血尿伴或不伴有蛋白尿到典型肾病综合征,或严重的急进性肾炎综合征,     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.