Determining soil contamination profiles from intensities of capture-gamma rays using above-surface neutron sources.

Four methods are presented to estimate contaminant concentration profiles in soil from the intensities of neutron-induced capture-gamma photon intensities measured at the soil surface. In particular, the method of linear regularization with and without an iterative positivity constraint, the Backus-Gilbert method, and the maximum entropy method are applied to the soil contamination problem. Example results obtained with the four methods are given for photon intensities calculated for idealized test contaminant profiles in soil irradiated by neutron sources above the surface.     

Measurements of 64Cu and 68Ga half-lives and γ-ray emission intensities

The (64)Cu and (68)Ga half-lives and γ-ray intensities were measured at IFIN-HH. The determination of absolute photon emission intensities was based on absolute activity standardizations carried out in this laboratory using the 4πPC-γ coincidence method. The half-lives were measured with a well-type ionization chamber. The photon emission intensities (relative and absolute values) were measured with a calibrated high-resolution γ-ray spectrometer. The results obtained and their uncertainties are discussed and compared with values of other authors.     

Intercomparison of methods for coincidence summing corrections in gamma-ray spectrometry

A comparison of the coincidence summing correction methods is presented. Since there are several ways for computing these corrections, each method has advantages and drawbacks that could be compared. This part of the comparison was restricted to point sources. The same experimental spectra, decay scheme and photon emission intensities were used by all the participants. The results were expressed as coincidence summing correction factors for several energies of ¹⁵²Eu and ¹³⁴Cs, and three source-to-detector distances. They are presented and discussed.     

Dose calculations for asymmetric fields defined by independent collimators using symmetric field data

Several methods have been developed for the dosimetry of asymmetric radiation fields formed by independently moving collimator jaws. Three of these methods, based on different principles and modified to comply with our set of available data, are utilized for the calculation of asymmetric field dose profiles. All three methods use output factors and per cent depth doses or tissue maximum ratios of symmetric fields. In the first method, calculation of the off-centre ratio (OCR) of the asymmetric field is based on the symmetric field from which the asymmetric is originated, by setting the one jaw in an asymmetrical position. In the second method the OCR of the symmetric field is used for the OCR calculation of the asymmetric field of the same size; whereas the third method does not allow for the asymmetric OCR calculation. The results obtained using data for the 6 MV photon beam of a Philips SL-20 linear accelerator indicate that both the first and second method can accurately reproduce asymmetric field profiles from symmetric field data; the third method does not allow for penumbra reproduction, but it is accurate at the central part of the asymmetric field. The problems encountered in the application of the three methods are reported and their accuracy is compared.     

Intercomparison of methods for coincidence summing corrections in gamma-ray spectrometry--part II (volume sources)

The second part of an intercomparison of the coincidence summing correction methods is presented. This exercise concerned three volume sources, filled with liquid radioactive solution. The same experimental spectra, decay scheme and photon emission intensities were used by all the participants. The results were expressed as coincidence summing corrective factors for several energies of (152)Eu and (134)Cs, and different source-to-detector distances. They are presented and discussed.     

Dosimetric properties of a flattening filter-free 6-MV photon beam: a Monte Carlo study

Purpose The dosimetric features of an unflattened 6-MV photon beam of an Elekta SL-25 linac was calculated by the Monte Carlo (MC) method. Material and methods The head of the Elekta SL-25 linac was simulated using the MCNP4C MC code. The accuracy of the model was evaluated using measured dosimetric features, including depth dose values and dose profiles in a water phantom. The flattening filter was then removed, and beam dosimetric properties were calculated by the MC method and compared with those of the flattened photon beam. Results Our results showed a significant (twofold) increase in the dose rate for all field sizes. Also, the photon beam spectra for an unflattened beam were softer, which led to a steeper reduction in depth doses. The decrease in the out-of-field dose and increase in the contamination electrons and a buildup region dose were the other consequences of removing the flattening filter. Conclusion Our study revealed that, for recent radiotherapy techniques, the use of multileaf collimators for beam shaping removing the flattening filter could offer some advantages, including an increased dose rate and decreased out-of-field dose.     

International exercise on 124Sb photon emission intensities determination

An international exercise, registered as EUROMET project no. 907, was launched to measure both the activity of a solution of ¹²⁴Sb and the photon emission intensities of its decay. The same solution was sent by LNE-LNHB to eight participating laboratories, six of which sent results for photon emission intensities both in absolute and in relative terms. From these results and including previous published values, a consistent decay scheme was worked out, proving that problems in activity measurements have not been due to decay scheme data.     

Surface and superficial dose dosimetric verification for postmastectomy radiotherapy

In patients given postmastectomy radiotherapy (PMRT), the chest wall is a very thin layer of soft tissue with a low-density lung tissue behind. Chest wall treated in this situation with a high-energy photon beam presents a high dosimetric uncertainty region for both calculation and measurement. The purpose of this study was to measure and to evaluate the surface and superficial doses for patients requiring PMRT with different treatment techniques. An elliptic cylinder cork and superflab boluses were used to simulate the lung and the chest wall, respectively. Sets of computed tomography (CT) images with different chest wall thicknesses were acquired for the study phantom. Hypothetical clinical target volumes (CTVs) were outlined and modified to fit a margin of 1–3 mm, depending on the chest wall thickness, away from the surface for the sets of CT images. The planning target volume (PTV) was initially created by expanding an isotropic 3-mm margin from the CTV, and then a margin of 3 mm was shrunk from the phantom surface to avoid artifact-driven results in the beam-let intensity. Treatment techniques using a pair of tangential wedged fields (TWFs) and 4-field intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) were designed with a prescribed fraction dose (D_p) of 180 cGy. Superficial dose profiles around the phantom circumference at depths of 0, 1, 2, 3, and 5 mm were obtained for each treatment technique using radiochromic external beam therapy (EBT) films. EBT film exhibits good characteristics for dose measurements in the buildup region. Underdoses at the median and lateral regions of the TWF plans were shown. The dose profiles at shallow depths for the TWF plans show a dose buildup about 3 mm at the median and lateral tangential incident regions with a surface dose of about 52% of D_p. The dose was gradually increased toward the most obliquely tangential angle with a maximum dose of about 118% of D_p. Dose profiles were more uniform in the PTV region for the 4-F IMRT plans. Most of the PTV region had doses >94% of D_p at depths >1 mm. The mean surface dose was about 65% of D_p for the 4-F IMRT plans. The maximum dose for the 4-F IMRT plans was <118.4% of D_p. The application of added bolus has to consider the treatment technique, tumor coverage, and possible skin reactions. For PMRT, if the chest surface and wall are treated adequately, at least 3 mm bolus should be added to the chest wall when tangential beams and 6-MV photon energy are arranged. However, when the surface and superficial regions are not high-risk areas, an IMRT plan with tangential beams and 6-MV photon energy can provide uniform dose distributions within the PTV, spare the skin reaction, and deliver sufficient doses to the chest wall at depths >1 mm.     

Optimal 3-dimensional method for right and left ventricular Fourier phase analysis in electrocardiography-gated blood-pool SPECT

BACKGROUND: To overcome some of the limitations imposed by planar imaging, we aimed to optimize the use of first harmonic Fourier phase analysis (FPA) in electrocardiography-gated blood-pool single photon emission computed tomography (GBPS) by comparing different quantitative, 3-dimensional methods. METHODS AND RESULTS: Three groups of patients who underwent GBPS were evaluated: group 1, 8 patients with no heart disease; group 2, 10 patients with left ventricular disease; and group 3, 6 patients with right ventricular disease. Six different methods for FPA were compared: surface, cylindrical, spherical, and hybrid methods with fixed thresholding and spherical and hybrid methods with multiple thresholding. The hybrid method with multiple thresholding for the left ventricle and the spherical method for the right ventricle provided the highest discrimination score (phase) between normal and abnormal ventricles. Among methods with similar discrimination score for these 2 methods, the cylindrical and hybrid methods for the left ventricle and the spherical method for the right ventricle provided the best homogeneity of phase distribution histogram in normal ventricles. These were considered the optimal methods for FPA. CONCLUSIONS: The hybrid or cylindrical method for the left ventricle and the spherical method for the right ventricle with fixed thresholding are the optimal methods for FPA in GBPS.     

International exercise on 124Sb activity measurements

An international exercise, registered as EUROMET project no. 907, was launched to measure both the activity of a solution of ¹²⁴Sb and the photon emission intensities of its decay. The same solution was sent by LNE-LNHB to eight participating laboratories. In order to identify possible biases, the participants were asked to use all possible activity measurement methods available in their laboratory and then to determine their reference value for comparison. Thus, measurement results from 4πβ–γ coincidence/anti-coincidence counting, CIEMAT/NIST liquid-scintillation counting, 4πγ counting with well-type ionization chambers and well-type crystal detectors were given. The results are compared and show a maximum discrepancy of about 1.6%: possible explanations are proposed.     

Gamma-ray computed tomography to characterize soil surface sealing.

The application of sewage sludge as a fertilizer on soils may cause compacted surface layers (surface sealing), which can promote changes on soil physical properties. The objective of this work was to study the use of gamma-ray computed tomography, as a diagnostic tool for the evaluation of this sealing process through the measurement of soil bulk density distribution of the soil surface layer of samples subjected to sewage sludge application. Tomographic images were taken with a first generation tomograph with a resolution of 1 mm. The image analysis opened the possibility to obtain soil bulk density profiles and average soil bulk densities of the surface layer and to detect the presence of soil surface sealing. The sealing crust thickness was estimated to be in the range of 2-4 mm.     

蒙特卡罗方法计算外照射所致红骨髓剂量方法的研究

目的 对现有的红骨髓剂量模拟计算方法进行比较和分析.为确定更为合理的计算方法提供依据.方法 借助MCNPX蒙特卡罗模拟软件,模拟了能量20 keV～10 MeV的γ光子源,对Rensselaer理工学院(RPI)体素人体模型进行前后(AP)全身均匀照射,分别采用直接能量沉积法、剂量响应函数法(DRF)、King-Spiers因子法和质能吸收系数法(MEAC),进行红骨髓剂量的模拟计算.结果 在入射γ光子能量低于100 keV时,直接能量沉积法的结果最大,而质能吸收系数法和King-Spiels因子法的结果更为合理;在入射γ光子能量高于150 keV时,King-Spiers因子法给出的结果要略高于其他方法的结果,但其能够反映出红骨髓对γ光子能量更强的吸收能力.结论 综合比较低能区和高能区不同方法给出的结果后,发现King-Spiers因子法是最合理的估算红骨髓剂量的方法.     

Monte Carlo study on a flattening filter-free 18-MV photon beam of a medical linear accelerator

PURPOSE: Several studies on the dosimetric properties of unflattened photon beams have shown some advantages for radiotherapy. In this study, the effect of removing the flattening filter from an 18-MV photon beam was investigated using the Monte Carlo method. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The 18-MV photon beam of an Elekta SL25 linear accelerator was simulated using the MCNP4C Monte Carlo (MC) code. Beam dosimetric features, including central axis absorbed doses, beam profiles, and photon energy spectra, were calculated for flattened and unflattened 18-MV photon beams. RESULTS: A 4.24-fold increase in the dose rate was seen for the unflattened beam with a field size of 10 x 10 cm(2). A decrease in the out-of-field dose up to 30% was seen for the unflattened beam. For the unflattened beam, photon energy spectra were softer, and the mean energies of the spectra were higher for a smaller field size. CONCLUSION: Our study showed that the increase in dose rate and lower out-of-field dose can be possible advantages for an unflattened 18-MV beam.     

Accuracy of numerically produced compensators.

A feasibility study is performed to assess the utility of a computer numerically controlled (CNC) mill to produce compensating filters for conventional clinical use and for the delivery of intensity-modulated beams. A computer aided machining (CAM) software is used to assist in the design and construction of such filters. Geometric measurements of stepped and wedged surfaces are made to examine the accuracy of surface milling. Molds are milled and filled with molten alloy to produce filters, and both the molds and filters are examined for consistency and accuracy. Results show that the deviation of the filter surfaces from design does not exceed 1.5%. The effective attenuation coefficient is measured for CadFree, a cadmium-free alloy, in a 6 MV photon beam. The effective attenuation coefficients at the depth of maximum dose (1.5 cm) and at 10 cm in solid water phantom are found to be 0.546 cm-1 and 0.522 cm-1, respectively. Further attenuation measurements are made with Cerrobend to assess the variations of the effective attenuation coefficient with field size and source-surface distance. The ability of the CNC mill to accurately produce surfaces is verified with dose profile measurements in a 6 MV photon beam. The test phantom is composed of a 10 degrees polystyrene wedge and a 30 degrees polystyrene wedge, presenting both a sharp discontinuity and sloped surfaces. Dose profiles, measured at the depth of compensation (10 cm) beneath the test phantom and beneath a flat phantom, are compared to those produced by a commercial treatment planning system. Agreement between measured and predicted profiles is within 2%, indicating the viability of the system for filter production.     

Depth dose characteristics of photon beams released from a scanning-type racetrack microtron

The MM50 is a racetrack microtron that can emit photon beams or electron beams up to 50 MeV. The MM22 using the scanning beam method and the MM22 using a flattening filter method both to flatten the emission field and a water phantom with particular function measurable of PDD etc. in an accelerator using the scanning beam method to make up the PDD curve of photon beams from the linear accelerator. The Clinac21EX was thus employed. The maximum depth of beam flux was shallow, the gradient of the flux decrement large, the surface dose large, and the estimated nominal energy low to the same nominal energy. From these findings, it can be said that thorough comprehension of the characteristics of beam flux properties for these units is necessary when photon beams are to be used.     

Total and partial mass attenuation coefficients of soil as a function of chemical composition

The mass attenuation coefficient (μ_s) of soil for total and partial photon interaction processes has been calculated for five different elemental compositions of soils, in the energy range from 10 keV to 100 GeV, to study the influence of chemical composition. For the total photon interaction coefficient, appreciable variations in μ_s due to chemical composition (soil type) are seen only below 300 keV and above 3 MeV photon energy. For partial interaction processes significant variations in μ_s are seen for photoeffect, coherent scattering and pair production in the nuclear field at all energies. No significant variations were noted in μ_s due to soil chemical composition for incoherent scattering and pair production in the electron field. We present graphs of the variations in μ_s for total and partial photon interaction processes in soil due to the Z-dependences of the interaction processes.     

Gamma-ray-computed tomography to investigate compaction on sewage-sludge-treated soil.

Soil compaction is one of the fundamental parameters to evaluate the environmental impact of agricultural machinery traffic on soils. Compaction causes modifications on soil physical properties such as changes in porosity and structure that are related to soil water movement and gas exchange The objective of this work was to evaluate soil surface sealing after sewage-sludge application, and the influence of agricultural machinery traffic, through computed tomography. A first generation tomograph was used having a 137Cs source and a 3 in x 3 in NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal detector coupled to a photomultiplier tube. Image analysis and tomographic unit profiles could successfully be used for the detection of soil surface sealing and soil compaction due to machinery traffic associated to sewage-sludge application.     

Tissue compensator fabrication using a simple photographic technique

A simple method of fabricating photon beam tissue compensators is described. A plaster cast of the patient's surface contours is partially immersed in a mixture of India ink and water to obtain a topographic map relative to a reference plane which is perpendicular to the photon beam. The contours are photographed, and successive contours corresponding to different missing tissue thicknesses are used to fabricate a compensator from lead sheets cut to the same shape with the proper magnification.     

An improved level set method for brain MR images segmentation and bias correction

Intensity inhomogeneities cause considerable difficulty in the quantitative analysis of magnetic resonance (MR) images. Thus, bias field estimation is a necessary step before quantitative analysis of MR data can be undertaken. This paper presents a variational level set approach to bias correction and segmentation for images with intensity inhomogeneities. Our method is based on an observation that intensities in a relatively small local region are separable, despite of the inseparability of the intensities in the whole image caused by the overall intensity inhomogeneity. We first define a localized K-means-type clustering objective function for image intensities in a neighborhood around each point. The cluster centers in this objective function have a multiplicative factor that estimates the bias within the neighborhood. The objective function is then integrated over the entire domain to define the data term into the level set framework. Our method is able to capture bias of quite general profiles. Moreover, it is robust to initialization, and thereby allows fully automated applications. The proposed method has been used for images of various modalities with promising results.     

Depth dose and profile analysis using Library Least-Squares method

The Library Least-Squares method has been applied to detect changes in the depth dose and in the profiles of 6 and 20 MeV electron beams, and in 6 MeV photon beams from medical linear accelerators. The changes in the beam energy of 0.78% and 0.32% at low and high electron energies, respectively, induced by the insertion of 0.1 mm A1 absorber were clearly visible in the residual distributions. The changes in the photon beam were introduced by rotation of the gantry or the collimator. The applicability of the method to quantitatively monitor any changes in the treatment beam characteristics is presented.