The calming process of anger experience: time series changes of affects, cognitions, and behaviors

This study investigated time series changes and relationships of affects, cognitions, and behaviors immediately, a few days, and a week after anger episodes. Two hundred undergraduates (96 men, and 104 women) completed a questionnaire. The results were as follows. Anger intensely aroused immediately after anger episodes, and was rapidly calmed as time passed. Anger and depression correlated in each period, so depression was accompanied with anger experiences. The results of covariance structure analysis showed that aggressive behavior was evoked only by affects (especially anger) immediately, and was evoked only by cognitions (especially inflating) a few days after the episode. One week after the episode, aggressive behavior decreased, and was not influenced by affects and cognitions. Anger elicited all anger-expressive behaviors such as aggressive behavior, social sharing, and object-displacement, while depression accompanied with anger episodes elicited only object-displacement.     

Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults

Anger is a basic emotion, experienced by almost all human beings in response to the unwanted and unexpected behavior of others. Yet, there is little consensus as to which characteristics may differentiate people who experience normal versus exaggerated or pathological anger reactions. We examined the self-reported characteristics of specific anger episodes in 93 community adults who were high (HTA) or low (LTA) on trait anger. Using a componential model, they were asked to identify a recent anger episode and report on the triggers and associated cognitions, characteristics of the experience, desired and actual patterns of expression, and outcomes. HTA adults, in comparison to their LTA counterparts, exhibited anger reactions that were more frequent, intense, and enduring. They also reported more negative cognitions. Of particular importance, the HTA adults reported more physical aggression, negative verbal responses, drug use, and negative anger-related consequences. Thus, clinically important anger reactions may emerge as a function of the anger trait. Results are discussed in terms of implications for diagnosis and treatment.     

The relationship between anger and depression in a clinical sample of young men: the role of insecure attachment

BACKGROUND: Even though the relevance of insecure attachment in the etiology of dysfunctional anger is indicated by a number of findings, few studies have examined the relationship between anger and depression from the perspective of attachment theory. METHODS: Self-reported measures of trait anger, depression, and adult attachment style were simultaneously administered to 87 young men with clinically significant depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Higher levels of trait anger were associated with an insecure style of attachment. Such an association remained significant after controlling for the severity of depressive symptoms. In a multiple regression model, both a measure of anxious attachment and a measure of avoidant attachment emerged as independent predictors of trait anger.LIMITATIONS: The study was cross-sectional and the sample did not include women. CONCLUSIONS: Insecure attachment is a useful predictor of anger experience among patients with depressive symptoms.     

中学生网络攻击行为与愤怒

目的:探讨中学生网络攻击行为与愤怒的关系。方法:选取12～19岁中学生349人,采用少年网络攻击行为评定量表、少年攻击性问卷和状态-特质愤怒表达量表修订版进行测评。结果:女生愤怒气质因子分高于男生[(2.0±0.7)vs.(1.9±0.7),P0.05]。高中生特质愤怒得分高于初中生[(2.1±0.6)vs.(1.9±0.6),P0.01];愤怒外部表达因子分高于初中生[(2.3±0.5)vs.(2.2±0.6),P0.01]。攻击行为与特质愤怒、愤怒表达各因子均呈显著的正相关(r=0.14～0.57,P0.05);现实攻击行为和网络工具性攻击行为与愤怒控制各因子呈显著的负相关(r=-0.19～-0.11,P0.05),网络反应性攻击行为与愤怒控制各因子相关均无统计学意义。多元逐步回归分析显示,愤怒反应、愤怒表达因子得分与攻击行为得分呈正相关(β=0.13～0.37,P0.05),控制外部表达因子与反应性攻击得分呈负相关(β=-0.01,P0.05)。对攻击行为的可解释变异率的范围为19.1%～35.7%。结论:中学生网络攻击行为可能与特质愤怒、愤怒表达相关。     

Anger as a predictor of aggression among incarcerated adolescents

This study examined the validity of trait anger as a predictor of aggressive behavior among juvenile offenders. Two standard self-report anger scales were administered to 65 recently incarcerated male adolescents. These youths were followed prospectively for physical and verbal aggression during 3 months of subsequent incarceration. Anger scores were not correlated with participant history of violent offending or staff ratings of anger. However, anger scores from both instruments were predictive of subsequent physical and verbal aggression. For example, the Trait Anger scale successfully classified 66% of juvenile offenders into high and low aggressive groups; receiver operating characteristic analysis obtained an effect size of .72. These results support the predictive validity of self-reported anger in identifying juvenile offenders at risk for institutional aggression.     

Trait anger predicts relative left frontal cortical activation to anger-inducing stimuli.

Building on past research that has suggested that relatively greater left frontal cortical activity is associated with approach-related anger and that individuals who are high in trait anger are more likely to evidence angry responses, the present research tested whether individuals high in trait anger would be more likely to evidence relatively greater left frontal cortical activity in response to anger-eliciting pictorial stimuli. In the experiment, participants were exposed to pictures intended to evoke anger, fear/disgust, positive, or neutral affective reactions. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was recorded continuously, and alpha power was derived from the EEG to measure cortical activity. Trait anger was measured using the Buss and Perry Aggression Questionnaire [Buss, A.H., Perry, M., 1992. The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452-459]. Results revealed that trait anger was positively related to greater relative left frontal cortical activity to anger-evoking pictures but not to other types of pictures.     

The prevalence and clinical correlates of anger attacks during depressive episodes in bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND: Anger attacks, characterized by sudden episodes of intense anger with autonomic arousal, have been described in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). This study compared the prevalence and clinical significance of anger attacks in unipolar versus bipolar depression. METHODS: Using the questionnaire of Fava et al. [Psychopharmacol. Bull. 27(3) (1991) 275-279], we assessed rates of anger attacks among outpatients with MDD (n=50) or bipolar disorder (BPD) (n=29) who were currently in a pure depressive episode. RESULTS: Anger attacks were significantly more common among bipolar (62%) than unipolar (26%) depressed individuals. In a multiple logistic regression, the presence of anger attacks emerged as a significant predictor of bipolarity. LIMITATIONS: This preliminary finding should be confirmed in a larger sample. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that anger attacks may be a common feature of bipolar depression.     

Ethnicity, sex, trait anger, and nocturnal blood pressure decline

This study examined the relationship of trait anger to nocturnal blood pressure decline among Singaporean young adults. One hundred forty-nine participants (51 Chinese, 51 Malays, 47 Indians, 49.7% men) participated in 24-h ambulatory monitoring for blood pressure and hemodynamic measures. Significant interactions were obtained between ethnicity and trait anger for systolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure such that trait anger was significantly and negatively related to nocturnal blood pressure decline for Indians whereas this was not true for Chinese or Malays. Significant sex x trait anger interactions were obtained for systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and mean arterial pressure in which trait anger was negatively related to blood pressure decline for men but not for women. Overall the results suggest that trait anger is a significant factor affecting nocturnal blood pressure decline particularly among Indians and men.     

Anger state during acute insulin-induced hypoglycaemia.

This study sought to examine the effects of insulin-induced hypoglycaemia on anger state, and to describe the associations between change in the anger state and measures of anger trait and anger expression (assessed using the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory). A hyperinsulinaemic glucose clamp was used to achieve controlled euglycaemia (5.0 mmol/L) and hypoglycaemia (2.6 mmol/L) in 18 nondiabetic subjects and 30 people with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Subjects underwent both hypoglycaemic and euglycaemic conditions, separated by 2 weeks, in a counterbalanced order. During each study condition subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire on anger state. Results at euglycaemia and hypoglycaemia were compared, and differences between the conditions were correlated with measures of anger trait and anger expression. Hypoglycaemia caused both nondiabetic and IDDM subjects to report a significant increase in feelings of anger, despite being in a nonconfrontational setting. However, there were no clear associations between an individual's change in reported anger and measures of anger trait and anger expression. No association was found between the change in anger state and the intensity of an individual's symptomatic response to hypoglycaemia.     

Exogenous testosterone,aggression, and mood in eugonadal and hypogonadal men

To investigate (1) the effects of exogenous testosterone (T) on self- and partner-reported aggression and mood and (2) the role of trait impulsivity in the T-aggression relationship. Thirty eugonadal men with partners were randomized into two treatment groups to receive: (1) 200 mg im T enanthate weekly for 8 weeks or (2) 200 mg im sodium chloride weekly for 8 weeks. Eight hypogonadal men received 200 mg im T enanthate biweekly for 8 weeks. All groups completed a battery of behavior measures at baseline (Week 0) and at Weeks 4 and 8. Cognitive and motor impulsivity were the only predictors of self-reported total aggression (over and above age and T levels) at Weeks 0, 4, and 8. No significant changes in aggression or mood levels were found in the eugonadal-treated group. Significant reductions in negative mood (tension, anger, and fatigue) followed by an increase in vigor were found in response to T treatment in the hypogonadal group. These results demonstrate that inability to control one's behavior when such control is required by a particular situation (impulsivity) was found to significantly predict levels of aggression over and above age and T level. These data do not support the hypothesis that supraphysiological levels of T (within this range) lead to an increase in self- and partner-reported aggression or mood disturbances. Instead, for the first time, this study has identified the high level of negative affect experienced by hypogonadal patients. These findings have implications for T replacement therapy and male contraception.     

The effects of individual differences and charismatic leadership on workplace aggression

This study examined the effects of individual differences variables (trait anger, self-control, negative affectivity, attitudes toward revenge, and attributional style) and charismatic leadership on incidents of workplace aggression in a sample of 213 employees from a wide range of organizations. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that the individual differences variables accounted for 27% of the variance in workplace aggression and that charismatic leadership accounted for an additional 3% after controlling for individual differences. In addition, psychological empowerment partially mediated the relationship between charismatic leadership and workplace aggression.     

西宁地区妇女宫颈癌患者的C型行为研究

目的探讨宫颈癌患者是否具有某些特殊的行为模式。方法采用C型行为问卷调查宫颈癌患者及对照共101对,通过病例对照研究方法对结果进行统计分析。结果宫颈癌患者在焦虑、抑郁、愤怒、理智、情绪控制、乐观及社会支持各方面均与对照组差异有高度显著性（P〈0．01）。结论宫颈癌患者具有显著的C型行为特征,建议应加强妇女心理卫生健康指导,调整不当行为,以降低妇女宫颈癌的患病率。     

Emotion and pulmonary function in asthma: reactivity in the field and relationship with laboratory induction of emotion

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the modulation of pulmonary function by mood states in the daily life of asthmatic patients and nonasthmatic control subjects and its relationship to the airway effects of laboratory induction of emotion using films. METHODS: Twenty asthmatic patients and 20 nonasthmatic control subjects participated in a laboratory session in which various emotions (ie, anxiety, anger, depression, happiness, elation, contentment, and neutrality) were induced by films. Respiratory resistance (Ros) was measured by forced oscillation. After this session, participants kept mood diaries, including regular spirometric self-assessments, for at least 3 weeks. Episodes of strong negative or positive mood were selected from these diaries and compared with conditions of relative affective neutrality. RESULTS: In asthmatic patients, negative mood states, and to a lesser degree positive mood states, were associated with a reduction in forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) compared with neutral states. These effects were not observed in nonasthmatic control subjects. Self-reports of arousal varied in a reciprocal manner with FEV1, whereas physical activity did not vary systematically between mood episodes. A moderate negative relationship between changes in FEV1 during negative mood episodes and changes in Ros during viewing of the depressing film was also observed in asthmatic patients. CONCLUSION: Pulmonary function of asthmatic patients is negatively affected by strong mood states in daily life. Airway effects of negative emotion induction, particularly depression, can predict changes in pulmonary function in response to negative mood in the field.     

The interactive effect of change in perceived stress and trait anxiety on vagal recovery from cognitive challenge

The present study tested the hypothesis that the change in state negative affect (measured as perceived stress) after cognitive challenge moderates the relationship of trait anxiety and anger to vagal recovery from that challenge.Cardiac vagal control (assessed using heart rate variability) and respiratory rate were measured in a sample of 905 participants from the Midlife in the United States Study. Cognitive challenges consisted of computerized mental arithmetic and Stroop color–word matching tasks. Multiple regression analyses controlling for the effects of the demographic, lifestyle, and medical factors influencing cardiac vagal control showed a significant moderating effect of change in perceived stress on the relationship of trait anxiety to vagal recovery from cognitive challenges (Beta = .253, p = .013). After adjustment for respiratory rate, this effect became marginally significant (Beta = .177, p = .037). In contrast, for the relationship of trait anger to vagal recovery, this effect was not significant either before (Beta = .141, p = .257) or after (Beta = .186, p = .072) adjusting for respiratory rate. Secondary analyses revealed that among the individuals with higher levels of trait anxiety, greater reductions in perceived stress were associated with greater increases in cardiac vagal control after the challenge. In contrast, among the individuals with lower levels of trait anxiety, changes in perceived stress had no impact on vagal recovery. Therefore, change in perceived stress moderates the relationship of trait anxiety, but not trait anger, to vagal recovery from cognitive challenge.     

The relationship between interpersonal sensitivity, anxiety disorders and major depression

BACKGROUND: While interpersonal sensitivity, as rated by the Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure (IPSM) has previously been found to be an efficient predictor of depression, there has been less interest in the relationship between the IPSM and anxiety disorders. This study examines the performance of the IPSM in discriminating between cases and non-cases of the various anxiety disorders. The contribution of depression and the perception of parental environment, to any relationships found, are also examined. METHODS: A cohort of 156 men and women has been assessed at 5-yearly intervals since baseline in 1978, in their last year of teacher training. In this fourth wave of follow-up, subjects completed a series of self-report questionnaires, including the IPSM, and scales measuring neuroticism and trait depression. Perceived parental environment, measured at baseline, was also included. DSM-III-R major depression and anxiety disorders were generated using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. The IPSM subscales were moderately stable over time. 'Timidity' was associated with agoraphobia and simple phobia, and 'separation anxiety' with agoraphobia, panic disorder and generalised anxiety disorder. 'Separation anxiety' and 'timidity' showed differential gender effects for simple phobia. 'Fragile inner self' and 'separation anxiety' were associated with subjects with a history of repeated episodes of major depression, and the former, with perception of poor parental care. LIMITATIONS: The IPSM was not available for inclusion prior to the 1988 wave. CONCLUSIONS: While the IPSM subscales were consistently correlated with neuroticism, they displayed differential associations with specific anxiety disorders, episodes of major depression and early parental environment. These findings offer greater understanding of mechanisms concerning the relationship of vulnerability to anxiety disorders and depression.     

The mediating roles of cognition and behavior in the process of maintaining anger

Relationships were investigated between the sense of unintegration of thoughts, recurrent thinking, and avoidance behavior, which are considered to be factors in maintaining anger. Undergraduate students (N = 990) were asked to write about anger episodes that they had experienced a week or more ago. Then, they completed a questionnaire assessing their sense of unintegration of thoughts at the present time and just after the episode, their present recurrent thinking, their avoidance behavior after the episode, and their present degree of anger. The results of covariance structure analysis indicated that the sense of unintegration of thoughts just after the episode maintained anger through recurrent thinking. Recurrent thinking also intensified their present sense of unintegration of thoughts, which directly maintained anger. Moreover, the sense of unintegration of thoughts just after the episode led to an increase in avoidance behavior, which was related to recurrent thinking.     

Validation of a simplified definition of anger attacks

BACKGROUND: Anger attacks, sudden spells of anger with vegetative hyperarousal, are highly prevalent symptoms in depression. Assessment normally requires the use of specific instruments. The aim of this study was the validation of a simplified definition for anger attacks. METHODS: Anger attacks were assessed in 203 patients suffering from major depression with the Anger Attacks Questionnaire. The first three items of the questionnaire (irritability, overreaction to minor annoyances, episodes with inappropriate anger or rage) were compared separately with the diagnosis, and their value as single screening questions to establish the diagnosis was assessed. RESULTS: Irritability was only weakly associated with the diagnosis of anger attacks (Cohen's kappa kappa = 0.214 +/- 0.058) and yielded a rather low specificity (0.302), while overreaction to minor annoyances (kappa = 0.869 +/- 0.037) and the question about episodes with inappropriate anger or rage (kappa = 0.901 +/- 0.032) had a high degree of agreement with the diagnosis of the questionnaire (specificity 0.918 and 0.935, respectively). The combination of the two later items resulted in an almost perfect reclassification of cases (kappa = 0.955 +/- 0.022; specificity = 0.971). CONCLUSIONS: As anger attacks are probably underdiagnosed in clinical practice, simplification of the diagnostic process is imperative. Our results demonstrate that asking one or two simple screening questions suffices to recognize the majority of patients with anger attacks.     

The relational context of aggression in borderline personality disorder: using adult attachment style to predict forms of hostility

Attachment theory provides a framework for understanding and predicting critical aspects of aggression in the personality disorders. An association between borderline personality disorder (BPD) and insecure forms of adult attachment marked by high relationship anxiety has been repeatedly observed in the empirical literature. Aggression also has been linked to insecure attachment. The present study extends previous work by exploring the degree to which the underlying attachment dimensions of relationship anxiety and avoidance are associated in BPD with the following forms of hostility: (a) direct aggression (verbal or physical) initiated towards others, (b) expectation/perception of aggression from others (including "reactive" counteraggression when/if provoked), (c) aggression directed towards the self in the form of suicidality or parasuicidality, and (d) affective experience of irritability or anger. The issue was studied in a sample of 92 patients diagnosed with BPD. Results show significant association between more fearful forms of attachment (simultaneous presence of relationship anxiety and avoidance) and the more reactive form of aggression involving expectation of hostility from others. Self-harm was significantly associated only with relational avoidance while anger and irritability were associated only with relational anxiety. Implications for understanding relational aspects of BPD aggression in research and clinical work are discussed.     

Personality pathology and outcome in recurrently depressed women over 2 years of maintenance interpersonal psychotherapy

BACKGROUND: Empirical data on the impact of personality pathology on acute treatment outcome for depression are mixed, in part because of challenges posed by assessing trait-like personality patterns while patients are in an active mood episode. To our knowledge, no previous study has examined the effect of personality pathology on maintenance treatment outcome. By maintenance treatment we refer to long-term treatment provided to prevent depression recurrence among remitted patients. METHOD: Structured Clinical Interviews for the DSM-III-R Personality Disorders (SCID-II) were obtained on a sample of 125 recurrently depressed women following sustained remission of the acute mood episode and prior to entering maintenance treatment. SCID-II interviews were then repeated following 1 and 2 years of maintenance interpersonal psychotherapy. RESULTS: At the pre-maintenance assessment, 21.6% of the sample met SCID-II personality disorder criteria. Co-morbid personality pathology was related to an earlier age of onset, more previous depressive episodes, and a greater need for adjunctive pharmacotherapy to achieve remission of the acute mood episode. Co-morbid personality pathology predicted both higher rates of depression recurrence and a shorter time to recurrence over the 2-year course of maintenance treatment. Notably, among those patients who remained depression-free, continuous levels of personality pathology steadily declined over the 2-year course of maintenance therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the need for early and effective intervention of both episodic mood disorder and inter-episode interpersonal dysfunction inherent to the personality disorders. Future maintenance treatment trials are needed to clarify the relationship between episodic mood disorder and personality function over time.     

大学生学校道德氛围感知与攻击行为的关系:惩罚倾向的中介作用

目的:探究惩罚倾向在大学生学校道德氛围感知与攻击行为之间的中介作用。方法:采用自编大学生学校道德氛围问卷、攻击行为问卷、惩罚倾向分量表对505名在校大学生进行问卷调查。结果:学校道德氛围感知在学生干部、年级方面差异显著(P0.05),在性别、居住地、是否独生子女方面的差异不具有统计学意义(P0.05)。学校道德氛围感知各因子与惩罚倾向呈负相关(r=-0.135~-0.103,P0.05)。惩罚倾向与攻击行为各因子呈正相关(r=0.228~0.424,P0.001)。学校道德氛围感知各因子分别与攻击行为中的愤怒、身体攻击、敌对呈负相关(r=-0.208~-0.114,P0.001),与言语攻击相关不显著(P0.05)。大学生学校道德氛围感知既可直接影响攻击行为,又可通过惩罚倾向对其产生间接影响,中介效应占总效应的比例为20.90%。结论:增强校园道德氛围有利于降低大学生的惩罚倾向,对其攻击行为具有弱化作用。