基于生物信息数据库分析CD47对肺鳞癌免疫微环境及其免疫治疗的影响

目的 采用生物信息学方法分析基因CD47对肺鳞癌免疫微环境的影响并预测其免疫治疗响应。方法 从The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)数据库下载基因CD47在肺鳞癌组织和正常组织中的测序数据并分析其表达差异。采用基因集富集分析研究CD47富集的免疫相关通路;通过肿瘤免疫数据库(Tumor Immune Estimation Resource,TIMER)和TISIDB数据库(http://cis.hku.hk/TISIDB/TISIDB)分析肺鳞癌患者中CD47基因表达情况与肿瘤微环境免疫细胞浸润的关系;同时也分析了CD47和其他免疫检查点基因PD-1、PD-L1、CTLA-4、IDO1的相关性;采用pRRophetic和TIDE算法,预测CD47基因表达与化疗药物敏感性以及免疫治疗的响应。结果 与正常组织相比,CD47在肺鳞癌组织中低表达;CD47富集了免疫相关通路如炎症反应、干扰素α反应、干扰素γ反应和JAK-STAT通路。2个数据库分析结果显示,在肺鳞癌组织中CD47表达水平与B细胞、CD8⁺T细胞、CD4⁺T细胞、巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞以及树突状细胞呈正相关性。同时CD47与其他的免疫检查点PD-1、PD-L1、CTLA-4、IDO1均呈一定的正相关性,化疗敏感性结果显示,在肺鳞癌组织中,对于舒尼替尼、达沙替尼、阿霉素、吉西他滨等化疗药物,高表达CD47组IC₅₀值低于低表达组。但对于免疫治疗,其响应率却低于低表达组。结论 CD47在肺鳞癌组织中低表达,能激活免疫相关通路,对免疫治疗响应率高,可作为肺鳞癌新型分子标志物。     

基于生物信息学的CD39对肺腺癌免疫微环境及其免疫治疗的影响分析

目的 采用生物信息学方法探讨CD39基因在肺腺癌组织中的表达情况,并分析CD39与肺腺癌免疫微环境及免疫治疗响应的关系。方法 通过The Cancer Genome Atlas （TCGA）数据库分析CD39在肺腺癌组织和正常肺组织中的表达差异。采用基因集富集分析（GSEA）研究CD39可能富集的免疫相关通路;通过肿瘤免疫数据库（TIMER）分析肺腺癌患者中CD39基因表达情况与肿瘤微环境免疫细胞浸润的关系;同时分析CD39和其他免疫检查点基因PD-1、PD-L1、CTLA-4、IDO1的相关性,采用药物敏感性基因组学数据库（GDSC）和肿瘤免疫功能障碍和排斥（TIDE）数据库,预测CD39基因表达与化疗药物敏感性以及免疫治疗的响应。结果 CD39在肺腺癌组织中的表达低于在正常组织中的表达,CD39富集了免疫相关通路如炎症反应、干扰素α反应、干扰素γ反应。TIMER数据库均显示在肺腺癌组织中,CD39的表达与B细胞、CD8⁺T细胞、CD4⁺T细胞、巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞以及树突状细胞呈正相关性。同时CD39与其他的免疫检查点PD-1、PD-L1、CTLA-4、IDO1均呈一定的正相关性,化疗敏感性显示在肺腺癌组织中,对于博来霉素、顺铂、多西他赛、长春花碱等化疗药物,高表达CD39组对其敏感。但对于免疫治疗,其响应率却低于CD39低表达组。结论 CD39在肺腺癌组织中低表达,能激活免疫相关通路,对免疫治疗响应率高,可作为肺腺癌新型分子标志物。     

Blockade of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 as a new therapeutic approach for advanced melanoma

INTRODUCTION: The incidence of melanoma continues to rise, and prognosis in patients with metastatic melanoma remains poor. The cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) serves as one of the primary immune check points and downregulates T-cell activation pathways. Enhancing T-cell activation by antibody blockade of CTLA-4 provides a new approach to overcome tumor-induced immune tolerance. Recently, anti-CTLA-4 therapy demonstrated significant clinical benefits in patients with metastatic melanoma, which led to the approval of ipilimumab by the FDA in early 2011. AREAS COVERED: The fundamental concepts underlying CTLA-4 blockade-potentiated immune activation are presented in this paper, along with the scientific rationale for and the preclinical evidence supporting CTLA-4-targeted cancer immunotherapy. It also provides an update on clinical trials with anti-CTLA-4 inhibitors and discusses the associated autoimmune toxicity. EXPERT OPINION: Given that overall survival is the only validated end point for anti-CTLA-4 therapy, the clinical implications of the antigen or tumor-specific immunity in patients remain to be clarified. Additional research is necessary to elucidate the prognostic significance of immune-related side effects and significantly optimize the treatment regimens. An improved understanding of the mechanisms of action of CTLA-4 antibodies may also culminate in wide-ranging clinical applications of this new therapy for other tumor types.     

Autophagy-related gene expression classification defines three molecular subtypes with distinct clinical and microenvironment cell infiltration characteristics in colon cancer

BackgroundMultiple molecular subtypes with distinct clinical outcomes in colon cancer have been identified in recent years. Nonetheless, the autophagy-related molecular subtypes as well as its mediated tumor microenvironment (TME) cell infiltration characteristics have not been fully understood.MethodsBased on the seven colon cancer cohorts with 1580 samples, we performed a comprehensive genomic analysis to explore the molecular subtypes mediated by autophagy-related genes. The single-sample gene-set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) was used to quantify the relative abundance of each cell infiltration in the TME. Unsupervised methods were used to perform autophagy subtype clustering. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression (LASSO) was used to construct autophagy characterization score (APCS) signature.ResultsWe determined three distinct autophagy-related molecular subtypes in colon cancer. The three autophagy subtypes presented significant survival differences. Microenvironment analyses revealed the heterogeneous TME immune cell infiltration characterization between three subtypes. Cluster 1 autophagy subtype was characterized by abundant innate and adaptive immune cell infiltration. This subtype exhibited an enhanced stromal activity including activated pathways of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, TGF-β and angiogenesis, and an increased infiltration of fibroblasts and endothelial cells. The expression of immune checkpoint molecules was also significantly up-regulated, which may mediate immune escape in Cluster 1 subtype. Cluster 2 subtype was characterized by relatively lower TME immune cell infiltration and enhanced DNA damage repair pathways. Cluster 3 subtype was characterized by the suppression of immunity. Patients with high APCS, with poorer survival, presented a significantly positive correlation with TME stromal activity. Low APCS, relevant to activated damage repair pathways, showed enhanced responses to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. Two immunotherapy cohorts confirmed patients with low APCS exhibited prominently enhanced clinical response and treatment advantages.ConclusionsThis study may help understand the molecular characterization of autophagy-related subtypes. We demonstrated the autophagy genes in colon cancer could drive the heterogeneity of TME immune cell infiltration. Our study represented a step toward personalized immunotherapy in colon cancer.     

Impact of immune infiltration on tumor development and progression

Recently, immune infiltration has a crucial role in modulating tumor progression and response to therapy which comprised cells from the innate and adaptive immune response. Infiltrating immune cells can be detected in biopsy specimens and exploited to promote cancer metastasis, angiogenesis and growth. Mounting evidence demonstrates that many cancer-associated cell types within the tumor stromal support tumor growth and development, greatly modifying cancer cell behavior,facilitating invasion and metastasis and controlling sensitivity to drug therapy. Furthermore,immune infiltration of the tumor microenvironment has been associated with improved survival for some patients with solid tumors which have prognostic value. Infiltrating immune cells are both prognostic and predictive of response to cancer therapies. Understanding the interactions between tumor and immune infiltration is critical to find prognostic biomarkers,reduce drug resistance, and developnew therapies.Therefore, cancer immunotherapy based on tumor-infiltrating cell populations has become arguably the most promising advancement in cancer research and therapy in recent years. In this review, we provide an updated overview of key components of the immune infiltrating cells in the tumor microenvironment and the impact of immune infiltration on tumor development and progression. Moreover, we discuss the intricacy of the reciprocal interactions between cancer-associated immune cell types and signal transduction pathways, which appear to be crucially linked to cancer progression in response to the tumor microenvironment. Finally, we focus on the current immunotherapeutic strategies and emerging results from ongoing clinical trials are presented.     

The interaction of NK cells and dendritic cells in the tumor environment: how to enforce NK cell & DC action under immunosuppressive conditions?

The crosstalk of natural killer (NK) and dendritic cells (DCs) plays an important role in the induction of the tumor-specific immune response against cancer. During the last decade, our advanced understanding of the immune system led to the development of new therapeutic strategies in the field of immunotherapy and cellular immunology. However, these immunotherapeutic concepts have not been as successful as initially expected because of their inability to counteract cancer-induced immunosuppressive pathways. Some of the major difficulties of effective cellular immunotherapy are the highly immunosuppressive factors induced by tumor cells themselves or by their microenvironment. Therefore, one major challenge in immunotherapy is the question: "How to enforce NK cell & DC action under immunosuppressive conditions?" This review focuses on the current knowledge on the tumor microenvironment, the crosstalk of NK cells and DCs, as well as their deregulation in the complex interplay with the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. We further discuss possible strategies to minimize the negative impact of the tumor microenvironment on the immune system.     

Nanomedicines modulating tumor immunosuppressive cells to enhance cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has veered the paradigm of cancer treatment. Despite recent advances in immunotherapy for improved antitumor efficacy, the complicated tumor microenvironment (TME) is highly immunosuppressive, yielding both astounding and unsatisfactory clinical successes. In this regard, clinical outcomes of currently available immunotherapy are confined to the varied immune systems owing in large part to the lack of understanding of the complexity and diversity of the immune context of the TME. Various advanced designs of nanomedicines could still not fully surmount the delivery barriers of the TME. The immunosuppressive TME may even dampen the efficacy of antitumor immunity. Recently, some nanotechnology-related strategies have been inaugurated to modulate the immunosuppressive cells within the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) for robust immunotherapeutic responses. In this review, we will highlight the current understanding of the immunosuppressive TIME and identify disparate subclasses of TIME that possess an impact on immunotherapy, especially those unique classes associated with the immunosuppressive effect. The immunoregulatory cell types inside the immunosuppressive TIME will be delineated along with the existing and potential approaches for immunosuppressive cell modulation. After introducing the various strategies, we will ultimately outline both the novel therapeutic targets and the potential issues that affect the efficacy of TIME-based nanomedicines.     

Nanomedicine-based drug delivery towards tumor biological and immunological microenvironment

The complex tumor microenvironment is a most important factor in cancer development. The biological microenvironment is composed of a variety of barriers including the extracellular matrix and associated cells such as endothelia cells, pericytes, and cancer-associated fibroblasts. Different strategies can be utilized to enhance nanoparticle-based drug delivery and distribution into tumor tissues addressing the extracellular matrix or cellular components. In addition to the biological microenvironment, the immunological conditions around the tumor tissue can be very complicated and cancer cells have various ways of evading immune surveillance. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems can enhance cancer immunotherapy by tuning the immunological response and memory of various immune cells such as T cells, B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. In this review, the main components in the tumor biological and immunological environment are discussed. The focus is on recent advances in nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems towards targets within the tumor microenvironment to improve cancer chemotherapy and immunotherapy.     

Exploration and validation of the effects of robust co-expressed immune-related genes on immune infiltration patterns and prognosis in laryngeal cancer

ObjectivesLaryngeal cancer is a common malignant tumor that originates from the larynx, yet its molecular mechanisms have not been thoroughly explored. The purpose of this study was to identify and evaluate immune-related genes in laryngeal cancer through gene co-expression networks, which may serve as biomarkers for its immunotherapy.MethodsWe applied ESTIMATE to evaluate the immune-infiltration landscape of tumor microenvironment. The co-expression networks were constructed by weighted gene co expression network analysis (WGCNA) and compared with the existing human immune related genes (IRGs) to determine the co-expressed IRGs. GSVA combined with CIBERSORT and ssGSEA illustrated the correlation of hub genes and immune infiltration patterns. TIDE algorithm and Subclass mapping evaluated the function of hub genes in predicting immune function and immunotherapeutic sensitivity. The pRRophetic was employed in the sensitivity prediction of chemotherapeutic drugs.ResultsA total of 23 co-expressed IRGs were identified and showed robust expression characteristics. These genes were significantly related to immune infiltration patterns, immune function and sensitivity prediction of immunotherapy and chemotherapeutic drugs for laryngeal cancer patients. Genetic alteration in somatic mutation level and related pathways were also revealed.ConclusionThe 23 co-expressed IRGs may act as immunotherapeutic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for laryngeal cancer with certain expression robustness. The molecular mechanisms deserve further investigation, which will guide clinical treatment in the future.     

Engineering prodrug nanomicelles as pyroptosis inducer for codelivery of PI3K/mTOR and CDK inhibitors to enhance antitumor immunity

Aberrant activation of oncogenic signaling pathways in tumors can promote resistance to the antitumor immune response. However, single blockade of these pathways is usually ineffective because of the complex crosstalk and feedback among oncogenic signaling pathways. The enhanced toxicity of free small molecule inhibitor combinations is considered an insurmountable barrier to their clinical applications. To circumvent this issue, we rationally designed an effective tumor microenvironment-activatable prodrug nanomicelle (PNM) for cancer therapy. PNM was engineered by integrating the PI3K/mTOR inhibitor PF-04691502 (PF) and the broad spectrum CDK inhibitor flavopiridol (Flav) into a single nanoplatform, which showed tumor-specific accumulation, activation and deep penetration in response to the high glutathione (GSH) tumoral microenvironment. The codelivery of PF and Flav could trigger gasdermin E (GSDME)-based immunogenic pyroptosis of tumor cells to elicit a robust antitumor immune response. Furthermore, the combination of PNM-induced immunogenic pyroptosis with anti-programmed cell death-1 (αPD-1) immunotherapy further boosted the antitumor effect and prolonged the survival time of mice. Collectively, these results indicated that the pyroptosis-induced nanoplatform codelivery of PI3K/mTOR and CDK inhibitors can reprogram the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and efficiently improve checkpoint blockade cancer immunotherapy.     

细胞因子IL-33对肿瘤微环境的影响及其抗肿瘤作用

目的 探讨细胞因子IL-33对肿瘤微环境的影响及其抗肿瘤作用.方法 将70只小鼠分为对照组10只、干预组30只、模型组30只,其中干预组和模型组皮下接种H22细胞,造模饲养一周后干预组给予重组小鼠IL-33蛋白皮下注射,干预两周后比较小鼠肿瘤大小、血清IL-2、IL-4、IL-I0、IL-12p40、IFN-γ浓度、肿瘤微环境当中Th1型免疫应答以及瘤体OPN、TGF-β表达情况.结果 采用IL-33干预后,干预组小鼠肿瘤体积显著小于模型组,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).与对照组相比较,模型组IL-2、IL-12p40、IFN-γ显著降低(P＜0.05),IL-4显著升高(P＜0.05);干预组IL-2、IL-12p40、IFN-γ显著升高(P＜0.05),IL-4以及IL-10显著降低(P＜0.05);模型组与干预组各项血清指标比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);干预组小鼠肿瘤肿瘤中浸润的CD45+免疫细胞百分比显著高于模型组小鼠(P＜0.05);干预组小鼠肿瘤肿瘤中浸润的CD45+免疫细胞百分比显著高于模型组小鼠(P＜0.05),且干预组小鼠肿瘤中CD8+T、NK细胞百分比均显著高于对照组(P＜0.05);干预组小鼠瘤体组织中OPN、TGF-β蛋白表达均较模型组有所降低.结论 细胞因子IL-33可明显抑制肿瘤的生长,调节肿瘤微环境中Th1/Th2免疫应答,且抑制肿瘤中TGF-β、OPN蛋白的表达,具有着潜的抗肿瘤作用,为肿瘤的免疫治疗提供了新的方向.     

Identification of immune-related biomarkers in adrenocortical carcinoma: Immune-related biomarkers for ACC

Emerging evidence has suggested that the tumor microenvironment, including immune infiltration, plays a crucially important role in tumor progression. Nevertheless, limited studies have been conducted on this topic in adrenocortical carcinoma. The present study aimed to explore the immune-related biomarkers in adrenocortical carcinoma. CIBERSORT was used to estimate the abundances of 22 kinds of immune cells, and univariable Cox analysis was performed to find survival-related immune cells with both Overall Survival (OS) and Progression-Free Interval (PFI). DESeq2 was applied to find differentially expressed genes between adrenocortical carcinoma and normal control samples; subsequently, weighted correlation network analysis and protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis were conducted to identify immune-related hub genes. xCell, TISIDB, and MsigDB were searched to validate the immune associations of hub genes. Eventually, univariable Cox and Kaplan–Meier analysis were used to assess the prognostic implications of the hub gene with the GEO database. Consequently, we identified two hub immune-related genes (ERN1, CEP55), GSEA revealed that both were mainly involved in tumor progression and immune response. ROC analysis indicated that ERN1 can accurately predict the 1-, 3-, and 5-year PFI, and CEP55 had the best performance for the prediction of both OS and PFI compared with other traits. Univariable Cox and Kaplan–Meier analysis showed that both genes have a significant effect on prognosis. Furthermore, both hub genes were validated in GEO datasets. The hub genes can provide better insights into tumor microenvironment and serve as potential biomarkers for immunotherapy in adrenocortical carcinoma.     

Bispecific prodrug nanoparticles circumventing multiple immune resistance mechanisms for promoting cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is impaired by the intrinsic and adaptive immune resistance. Herein, a bispecific prodrug nanoparticle was engineered for circumventing immune evasion of the tumor cells by targeting multiple immune resistance mechanisms. A disulfide bond-linked bispecific prodrug of NLG919 and JQ1 (namely NJ) was synthesized and self-assembled into a prodrug nanoparticle, which was subsequently coated with a photosensitizer-modified and tumor acidity-activatable diblock copolymer PHP for tumor-specific delivery of NJ. Upon tumor accumulation via passive tumor targeting, the polymeric shell was detached for facilitating intracellular uptake of the bispecific prodrug. NJ was then activated inside the tumor cells for releasing JQ1 and NLG919 via glutathione-mediated cleavage of the disulfide bond. JQ1 is a bromodomain-containing protein 4 inhibitor for abolishing interferon gamma-triggered expression of programmed death ligand 1. In contrast, NLG919 suppresses indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase 1-mediated tryptophan consumption in the tumor microenvironment, which thus restores robust antitumor immune responses. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) was performed to elicit antitumor immunogenicity by triggering immunogenic cell death of the tumor cells. The combination of PDT and the bispecific prodrug nanoparticle might represent a novel strategy for blockading multiple immune evasion pathways and improving cancer immunotherapy.     

基于坏死性凋亡相关长链非编码RNA构建肝细胞癌预后模型及药物治疗反应分析

目的 使用坏死性凋亡相关长链非编码RNA(NRLs)构建肝细胞癌（HCC）预后模型并分析不同风险组间药物敏感性差异,为HCC病人预后预测和临床个体化治疗提供理论依据。方法 从癌症基因组图谱（TCGA）数据库中下载HCC病人的RNA测序数据和临床信息。采用共表达网络分析鉴定NRLs。使用单变量Cox回归和LASSO-Cox回归构建预后模型,并在测试集和整个集合中进行验证。运用生存分析、受试者操作特征（ROC）曲线、临床病理分层相关性分析、多变量Cox回归、列线图和校准曲线来评估预后模型。随后,采用基因集富集分析（GSEA）不同风险群体间生物过程和功能的差异。使用单样本基因集富集分析（ssGSEA）来探讨不同风险群体与肿瘤免疫、浸润之间的关系,并采用Pearson相关分析HCC病人预后特征与免疫检查点表达的相关性。最后,使用药物敏感性分析20种化疗药物在不同风险群体中的IC50值。结果 构建了由4个NRLs(ZFPM2-AS1、MKLN1-AS、LINC01116、AP003390.1)组成的风险评分（NRLs risk-Score）预后特征,并根据风险评分中位值将病人划分为高风险组和低风...     

Immune checkpoints in targeted-immunotherapy of pancreatic cancer: New hope for clinical development

Immunotherapy has been recently considered as a promising alternative for cancer treatment. Indeed, targeting of immune checkpoint (ICP) strategies have shown significant success in human malignancies. However, despite remarkable success of cancer immunotherapy in pancreatic cancer (PCa), many of the developed immunotherapy methods show poor therapeutic outcomes in PCa with no or few effective treatment options thus far. In this process, immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME) is found to be the main obstacle to the effectiveness of antitumor immune response induced by an immunotherapy method. In this paper, the latest findings on the ICPs, which mediate immunosuppression in the TME have been reviewed. In addition, different approaches for targeting ICPs in the TME of PCa have been discussed. This review has also synopsized the cutting-edge advances in the latest studies to clinical applications of ICP-targeted therapy in PCa.KEY WORDS: Immune checkpoint, Pancreatic cancer, Tumor microenvironment, Immunotherapy, Clinical development     

Blockade of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 as a new therapeutic approach for advanced melanoma

Introduction: The incidence of melanoma continues to rise, and prognosis in patients with metastatic melanoma remains poor. The cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) serves as one of the primary immune check points and downregulates T-cell activation pathways. Enhancing T-cell activation by antibody blockade of CTLA-4 provides a new approach to overcome tumor-induced immune tolerance. Recently, anti-CTLA-4 therapy demonstrated significant clinical benefits in patients with metastatic melanoma, which led to the approval of ipilimumab by the FDA in early 2011.

Areas covered: The fundamental concepts underlying CTLA-4 blockade-potentiated immune activation are presented in this paper, along with the scientific rationale for and the preclinical evidence supporting CTLA-4-targeted cancer immunotherapy. It also provides an update on clinical trials with anti-CTLA-4 inhibitors and discusses the associated autoimmune toxicity.

Expert opinion: Given that overall survival is the only validated end point for anti-CTLA-4 therapy, the clinical implications of the antigen or tumor-specific immunity in patients remain to be clarified. Additional research is necessary to elucidate the prognostic significance of immune-related side effects and significantly optimize the treatment regimens. An improved understanding of the mechanisms of action of CTLA-4 antibodies may also culminate in wide-ranging clinical applications of this new therapy for other tumor types.     

肿瘤免疫治疗新靶标PGE2受体EP4的研究进展

肿瘤免疫治疗已成为人们对抗癌症的重要手段,但响应率低仍是目前亟需解决的关键问题。大量研究表明,逆转肿瘤免疫抑制是阻断肿瘤免疫逃逸、增强和扩大免疫疗法疗效的重要策略。前列腺素E₂(PGE₂)是肿瘤微环境中的强效免疫介质,可特异性结合细胞膜上的七次跨膜蛋白EP4受体,诱导肿瘤微环境免疫抑制,驱动肿瘤免疫逃逸。特异性阻断PGE₂/EP4信号通路可有效解除肿瘤微环境免疫抑制,增强抗肿瘤免疫反应,促进肿瘤消退。本文从EP4受体的结构、信号转导、调控机制及其拮抗剂开发现状等方面阐述了EP4受体在肿瘤免疫治疗领域的新进展和新发现,并展望了新的发展方向。     

三级淋巴结构在常见恶性肿瘤中的研究进展

免疫系统在肿瘤的发生和发展中起着关键作用。即使阻断免疫检查点在多种肿瘤中均能有效提高抗肿瘤免疫反应,但肿瘤免疫治疗仍面临诸多挑战。三级淋巴结构（TLS）为抗肿瘤细胞的产生和体液免疫应答提供了关键的局部微环境,在多数恶性肿瘤中,TLS的存在与良好的预后相关,但在少数恶性肿瘤中,TLS对患者的预后价值尚存争议。因此,进一步解读TLS与不同肿瘤类型之间的关系可能为开发新型免疫治疗策略提供有益的借鉴。     

Light-responsive nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy emerged as a paradigm shift in cancer treatments, which can effectively inhibit cancer progression by activating the immune system. Remarkable clinical outcomes have been achieved through recent advances in cancer immunotherapy, including checkpoint blockades, adoptive cellular therapy, cancer vaccine, and tumor microenvironment modulation. However, extending the application of immunotherapy in cancer patients has been limited by the low response rate and side effects such as autoimmune toxicities. With great progress being made in nanotechnology, nanomedicine has been exploited to overcome biological barriers for drug delivery. Given the spatiotemporal control, light-responsive nanomedicine is of great interest in designing precise modality for cancer immunotherapy. Herein, we summarized current research utilizing light-responsive nanoplatforms to enhance checkpoint blockade immunotherapy, facilitate targeted delivery of cancer vaccines, activate immune cell functions, and modulate tumor microenvironment. The clinical translation potential of those designs is highlighted and challenges for the next breakthrough in cancer immunotherapy are discussed.     

Emerging role of natural products in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has become a new generation of anti-tumor treatment, but its indications still focus on several types of tumors that are sensitive to the immune system. Therefore, effective strategies that can expand its indications and enhance its efficiency become the key element for the further development of cancer immunotherapy. Natural products are reported to have this effect on cancer immunotherapy, including cancer vaccines, immune-check points inhibitors, and adoptive immune-cells therapy. And the mechanism of that is mainly attributed to the remodeling of the tumor-immunosuppressive microenvironment, which is the key factor that assists tumor to avoid the recognition and attack from immune system and cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, this review summarizes and concludes the natural products that reportedly improve cancer immunotherapy and investigates the mechanism. And we found that saponins, polysaccharides, and flavonoids are mainly three categories of natural products, which reflected significant effects combined with cancer immunotherapy through reversing the tumor-immunosuppressive microenvironment. Besides, this review also collected the studies about nano-technology used to improve the disadvantages of natural products. All of these studies showed the great potential of natural products in cancer immunotherapy.