An Integrated Service Delivery Model to Identify Persons Living with HIV and to Provide Linkage to HIV Treatment and Care in Prioritized Neighborhoods: A Geotargeted,Program Outcome Study

Background

Recent studies have demonstrated that high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence (2.1%) rates exist in “high-risk areas” of US cities that are comparable to rates in developing nations. Community-based interventions (CBIs) have demonstrated potential for improving HIV testing in these areas, thereby facilitating early entry and engagement in the HIV continuum of care. By encouraging neighborhood-based community participation through an organized community coalition, Project LINK sought to demonstrate the potential of the CBI concept to improve widespread HIV testing and referral in an area characterized by high poverty and HIV prevalence with few existing HIV-related services.

Objective

This study examines the influence of Project LINK to improve linkage-to-care and HIV engagement among residents of its target neighborhoods.

Methods

Using a venue-based sampling strategy, survey participants were selected from among all adult participants aged 18 years or more at Project LINK community events (n=547). We explored multilevel factors influencing continuum-of-care outcomes (linkage to HIV testing and CBI network referral) through combined geospatial-survey analyses utilizing hierarchical linear model methodologies and random-intercept models that adjusted for baseline effect differences among zip codes. The study specifically examined participant CBI utilization and engagement in relation to individual and psychosocial factors, as well as neighborhood characteristics including the availability of HIV testing services, and the extent of local prevention, education, and clinical support services.

Results

Study participants indicated strong mean intention to test for HIV using CBI agencies (mean 8.66 on 10-point scale [SD 2.51]) and to facilitate referrals to the program (mean 8.81 on 10-point scale [SD 1.86]). Individual-level effects were consistent across simple multiple regression and random-effects models, as well as multilevel models. Participants with lower income expressed greater intentions to obtain HIV tests through LINK (P<.01 across models). HIV testing and CBI referral intention were associated with neighborhood-level factors, including reduced availability of support services (testing P<.001), greater proportion of black/African Americans (testing and referral P<.001), and reduced socioeconomic capital (testing P=.017 and referral P<.001). Across models, participants expressing positive attitudes toward the CBI exhibited greater likelihood of engaging in routine HIV testing (P<.01) and referring others to HIV care (P<.01). Transgender individuals indicated greater intent to refer others to the CBI (P<.05). These outcomes were broadly influenced by distal community-level factors including availability of neighborhood HIV support organizations, population composition socioeconomic status, and high HIV prevalence.

Conclusions

Project LINK demonstrated its potential as a geotargeted CBI by evidencing greater individual intention to engage in HIV testing, care, and personal referrals to its coalition partner organizations. This study highlights important socioecological effects of US-based CBIs to improve HIV testing and initiate acceptable mechanisms for prompt referral to care among a vulnerable population.     

Trends in HIV Testing Among U.S. Older Adults Prior to and Since Release of CDC's Routine HIV Testing Recommendations: National Findings from the BRFSS

Objective

This study examined temporal trends in HIV testing among U.S. older adults (50–64 years of age) before and after the release of CDC''s routine HIV testing recommendations in 2006.

Methods

The sample (n=872,797; 51.4% female) comprised 2003–2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System respondents in the oldest categories to which the recommendations apply: 50–54 years (34.5%, n=301,519), 55–59 years (34.1%, n=297,865), and 60–64 years (31.3%, n=273,413). We calculated (1) four-year pooled prevalences of past-year HIV testing before and after 2006, when the recommendations were released; and (2) annual prevalences of HIV testing overall and by age category from 2003–2010. Using weighted, multivariable logistic regression analyses, we examined binary (pre- vs. post-recommendations) and annual changes in testing, controlling for covariates. We stratified the data by recent doctor visits, examined racial/ethnic differences, and tested for linear and quadratic temporal trends.

Results

Overall and within age categories, the pooled prevalence of past-year HIV testing decreased following release of the recommendations (p<0.001). The annual prevalence decreased monotonically from 2003 (5.5%) to 2006 (3.6%) (b=–0.16, p<0.001) and then increased immediately after release of the recommendations, but decreased to 3.7% after 2009 (b=0.01, p<0.001). By race/ethnicity, testing increased over time among non-Hispanic black people only. Annual prevalence also increased among respondents with recent doctor visits.

Conclusion

CDC''s HIV testing recommendations were associated with a reversal in the downward trend in past-year HIV testing among older adults; however, the gains were neither universal nor sustained over time.In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began recommending routine opt-out human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing of all adults <65 years of age seeking health care in any setting where HIV prevalence is ≥0.1%.¹ Routine testing is an efficient, cost-effective strategy for early detection of HIV infection.² It involves screening every patient (except those who decline testing) regardless of any reported risk behaviors; therefore, it can facilitate detection of undiagnosed HIV infection among people unlikely to seek an HIV test, including those presumed to have little or no HIV risk.³Routine testing may be particularly important for older adults (i.e., those aged ≥50 years), among whom 11% of U.S. HIV infections occur. Of concern, HIV-infected older adults are disproportionately diagnosed late in the course of HIV disease.^4,5 Late diagnosis is associated with rapid progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and it exacerbates the management of both HIV disease and the non-HIV conditions that are prevalent among older adults (e.g., hypertension).^6–9 Rates of HIV testing generally decrease with age;^10–13 however, it is unclear if the release and implementation of the recommendations have helped to improve HIV testing levels in this age group.^14,15To understand the recommendations'' potential influence on HIV testing among older adults, we examined trends in HIV testing from January 1, 2003, to December 31, 2010, among Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) respondents in the three categories of older adulthood (50–54, 55–59, and 60–64 years of age) to which the routine HIV testing recommendations apply. The study period began four years prior to CDC''s publication of the recommendations and concluded four years thereafter, enabling us to compare HIV testing levels before and after their release. Full implementation should produce a sustained increase in testing that begins in 2007 and is most apparent among people with a recent doctor visit. This study sought to determine if:

1. The annual prevalence of past-year HIV testing increased among older adults since release of the routine HIV testing recommendations,
2. Racial/ethnic differences in past-year HIV testing exist over time among older adults,
3. The odds of testing increased more for those with vs. without a recent doctor visit since release of the recommendations, and
4. The characteristics of older testers changed over time.

     

Serological diagnosis of human immuno-deficiency virus in Burkina Faso: reliable, practical strategies using less expensive commercial test kits.

Reported are the results of a cross-sectional survey in Burkina Faso to identify reliable, practical strategies for the serological diagnosis of HIV-1 and/or HIV-2 infections, using less-expensive commercial test kits in various combinations, as an alternative to the conventional Western blot (WB) test, which costs US$ 60. Serum samples, collected from blood donors, patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and pregnant women, were tested between December 1995 and January 1997. Twelve commercial test kits were available: five Mixt enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), three Mixt rapid tests, and four additional tests including monospecific HIV-1 and HIV-2 ELISA. The reference strategy utilized a combination of one ELISA or one rapid test with WB, and was conducted following WHO criteria. A total of 768 serum samples were tested; 35 were indeterminate and excluded from the analysis. Seroprevalence of HIV in the remaining 733 sera was found to be 37.5% (95% confidence interval: 34.0-41.1). All the ELISA tests showed 100% sensitivity, but their specificities ranged from 81.4% to 100%. GLA (Genelavia Mixt) had the highest positive delta value, while ICE HIV-1.0.2 (ICE) produced the most distinct negative results. Among the rapid tests, COM (CombAIDS-RS) achieved 100% sensitivity and SPO (HIV Spot) 100% specificity. Various combinations of commercial tests, according to recommended WHO strategies I, II, III, gave excellent results when ICE was included in the sequence. The best combination of tests for strategy II, which achieved 100% sensitivity and specificity, was to use ICE and COM, the cost of which was US$ 2.10, compared with US$ 55.60 for the corresponding conventional strategy. For strategy III, the best combination, which achieved 100% sensitivity and specificity, was to use ICE, ZYG (Enzygnost Anti HIV-1/HIV-2 Plus) and COM, the cost of which was US$ 2.90 (19.2 times lower than the corresponding strategy requiring WB). No rapid test combination showed 100% sensitivity and specificity. Our results indicate that the serodiagnosis of HIV in Burkina Faso is possible by using reliable, less-expensive strategies which do not require Western blot testing. Moreover, there is a choice of strategies for laboratories working with or without an ELISA chain.     

HIV testing and attitudes among the working-age population of Japan: annual health checkups may offer an effective way forwards

In Japan, Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) for HIV has been recommended for people concerned about their infection risk, especially those in high-risk groups. Although HIV awareness has declined in this country somewhat during recent years, the number of newly-infected cases has been increasing. The purpose of the current study therefore, was to determine the prevalence of HIV testing, individuals’ reasons for being tested, and the overall acceptance of HIV testing among working-age Japanese. We utilized an anonymous, nationwide survey which was administered to a total of 3,055 participants aged 20–69 yr. The lifetime prevalence of HIV testing was 14% (2% within the past year). A gap was observed between a prior history of HIV testing and willingness to be tested in future (32%) or willingness to be tested during health checkups in the workplace (41%). HIV testing appears to have only been conducted among a limited number of working-age Japanese adults, even though some reported a willingness to be tested. Opportunities for VCT during workplace health checkups might offer an immediate and positive way forwards in the fight against HIV; however, privacy protection for test results and the acceptance of HIV-positive employees should be carefully considered in the workplace.     

HIV-TB co-infection in children: associated factors and access to HIV services in Lagos,Nigeria

Background: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (TB) are the leading causes of death from infectious disease worldwide. The World Health Organization estimates that the prevalence of HIV among children with TB in moderate to high prevalence countries ranges between 10% and 60%. This study aimed to determine the access to HIV services of HIV-TB co-infected children.Methods: A retrospective review of data of children diagnosed with TB in Lagos State, Nigeria from 1 January 2012 to 31 December 2013.Results: A total of 1199 children aged between 0 and 14 years were diagnosed with TB. Of 1095 (91.3%) who underwent testing for HIV, 320 (29.2%) were HIV seropositive. The male-to-female ratio of HIV-TB positive outcomes was 1:0.9. Of the 320 HIV-TB co-infected children, 57 (17.8%) were aged <1 year, 86 (26.9%) 1–4 years and 186 (58.1%) 5–14 years; 186/320 (58.1%) began cotrimoxazole preventive therapy (CPT), and 151 (47.2%) were put on antiretroviral treatment (ART). ART uptake was not significantly higher in facilities where HIV-TB services were co-located (P > 0.05).Conclusion: The uptake of CPT and ART was low. There is a need to intensify efforts to improve access to HIV services in Lagos State, Nigeria.     

Implementing Rapid HIV Testing With or Without Risk-Reduction Counseling in Drug Treatment Centers: Results of a Randomized Trial

Objectives. We examined the effectiveness of risk reduction counseling and the role of on-site HIV testing in drug treatment.Methods. Between January and May 2009, we randomized 1281 HIV-negative (or status unknown) adults who reported no past-year HIV testing to (1) referral for off-site HIV testing, (2) HIV risk-reduction counseling with on-site rapid HIV testing, or (3) verbal information about testing only with on-site rapid HIV testing.Results. We defined 2 primary self-reported outcomes a priori: receipt of HIV test results and unprotected anal or vaginal intercourse episodes at 6-month follow-up. The combined on-site rapid testing participants received more HIV test results than off-site testing referral participants (P < .001; Mantel-Haenszel risk ratio = 4.52; 97.5% confidence interval [CI] = 3.57, 5.72). At 6 months, there were no significant differences in unprotected intercourse episodes between the combined on-site testing arms and the referral arm (P = .39; incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.04; 97.5% CI = 0.95, 1.14) or the 2 on-site testing arms (P = .81; IRR = 1.03; 97.5% CI = 0.84, 1.26).Conclusions. This study demonstrated on-site rapid HIV testing’s value in drug treatment centers and found no additional benefit from HIV sexual risk-reduction counseling.There are approximately 50 000 new HIV infections in the United States each year, with incidence remaining stable between 2006 and 2009.1 Among the more than 1 million people living with HIV in the United States, approximately one fifth do not know they are infected.2 This has led to expanded efforts to increase HIV testing, as recently outlined in the US National HIV/AIDS Strategy.3 In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended routine HIV screening of all adults and adolescents in health care settings,4 with other medical groups following with similar recommendations.5,6Medical care settings and community-based testing sites are where most testing occurs,7 but the CDC and others have called for expanded testing in other locales serving high-risk persons, including drug treatment programs.4 Previous studies have shown that, despite high HIV prevalence in drug treatment programs (ranging from more than 3% in noninjection drug users [non-IDUs] to 27% in IDUs8,9) and the well-established link among substance use, sexual risk behaviors, and HIV, fewer than half of US drug treatment programs offer HIV testing on site.10–12The role of risk-reduction counseling in the HIV testing process remains a central question, because of both questions of efficacy in reducing HIV infection rates and its implications for the time and personnel required for the recommended scale-up of testing. In a major policy shift, the 2006 CDC testing guidelines specify that risk-reduction counseling should only be required for persons who test HIV-positive.In the era of rapid HIV testing, the effectiveness of brief risk-reduction counseling for reducing risk behavior in persons who test HIV-negative is unknown. The seminal US trial, Project RESPECT13 demonstrated that two 20-minute counseling sessions in conjunction with conventional HIV testing for sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic patients including IDUs14 significantly increased self-reported condom use and reduced STD incidence. However, in the 15 years since RESPECT, the context for HIV testing has changed dramatically: rapid testing is now widespread, effective treatment has greatly reduced HIV-related morbidity and mortality, and many people report having been tested for HIV at least once.To examine the efficacy of on-site rapid testing and risk-reduction counseling in increasing receipt of results and reducing HIV risk behaviors in drug treatment program patients, the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network (CTN) conducted the HIV Rapid Testing and Counseling Study (CTN 0032). The aims were to quantify the degree to which available on-site rapid HIV testing increases testing and receipt of results, and to determine whether counseling affects testing acceptance and reduces HIV risk behaviors.     

Serological titres to Leptospira fainei serovar hurstbridge in human sera in Australia.

A set of 723 diagnostic sera from human patients, submitted for the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) for antibodies to a group of 6 leptospiral serovars, was also tested by MAT for antibodies to the recently-discovered Leptospira fainei serovar hurstbridge. MAT titres of > or = 128 to serovar hurstbridge were detected in 13.4% of these sera, and titres of > or = 512 in 7.2%. In contrast, none of 62 sera obtained from a control population of laboratory staff gave titres of > or = 128. The difference between the number of titres of > or = 128 given by the two groups of sera was highly significant (P < 0.01). The titres observed may have been due to cross-reactions with other leptospiral serovars, but this could not be demonstrated. An alternative explanation is that serovar hurstbridge is present in the human population.     

Use of sentinel lambs to survey the effect of an education programme on control of transmission of Echinococcus granulosus in South Powys, Wales.

In this article the effects of an education programme (area II) on transmission of Echinococcus granulosus from dogs to sheep in Wales and of substitution of the education programme by a 6-weekly anthelmintic control programme (area I) are compared with the situation in an area where no control interventions had occurred (area III). The education programme failed to prevent transmission of E. granulosus to sentinel lambs examined at 15 months of age, 6%, 4%, and 10% of which were infected in areas I, II, and III, respectively. Educational efforts did, however, show some positive effects; for example, significantly more farmers (87-98%) in areas I, II, and III used praziquantel to treat their dogs compared with 39% of farmers in a lowland area in the east of England where E. granulosus is absent. In particular, the interval between treatments of dogs was significantly shorter in areas targeted with education programmes, and 38% of farmers in area I treated dogs at a 4-6 week interval, as did 17% in area II and 10% in area III, compared with only 3% in the lowland area. Also, more dogs in Wales (65-88%) were treated at an interval of < or = 3 months, whereas most of the dogs in the lowland area (64%) were treated at intervals of > or = 6 months. The shorter treatment intervals with praziquantel may account for the significantly fewer positive coproantigen tests among dogs in area I (6.3%) and area II (5.6%) compared with area III (23.9%).     

Successful use of pooled sera to estimate HIV antibody seroprevalence and eliminate all positive cases.

Pooling specimens when testing them in large numbers can save scarce resources and several earlier reports have indicated this to be a feasible strategy. In an HIV antibody mass screening test carried out in our laboratory, we used Dorfman's two-stage model. We sought to establish the optimal number of specimens in a pool, and to achieve maximum efficiency while maintaining both sensitivity and specificity. Before testing for HIV antibody, five positive samples were placed in a set of 1012 sera in a double blind manner, one positive sample into a second set of 1012 sera and none in a third set. The positive rate was assumed to be 0.2% for each set of 1012 sera. As indicated by our model, 22 individual serum samples were placed into each of 46 pools which, when tested by particle agglutination assays, lead to the identification of all positive samples. We concluded that the prevalence rate can be estimated in the first stage, 95% confidence intervals were given, and the efficiency rate could be calculated for the identification of all infected specimens in a large number of samples showing low prevalence rates.     

Micronutrient Intakes among Children and Adults in Greece: The Role of Age,Sex and Socio-Economic Status

The aim of the present study was to report the usual nutrient intakes of sixteen micronutrients by schoolchildren, adults and the elderly in Greece and to further explore the role of age, sex and socio-economic status (SES) on meeting the recommended nutrient intakes. Dietary intake, demographic and SES data from three existing studies conducted in Greece (in 9–13-year-old children; 40–60-year-old adults; and 50–75-year-old women) were collected. The prevalence of study participants with inadequate micronutrient intakes were assessed using the estimated average requirement (EAR) cut-point method. Regarding sex and age differences, the highest prevalences of inadequate nutrient intakes occurred in post-menopausal women. In both sexes and all age groups, the prevalence of vitamin D intake below EAR reached 100%. Furthermore, nutrient intakes of 75% or more below EAR were found for vitamin E in all age groups, folate in women and for calcium and magnesium in post-menopausal women (p < 0.05). Regarding SES differences, the prevalences of inadequate calcium and vitamin C intakes were higher for children and postmenopausal women of lower SES compared to their higher SES counterparts (p < 0.05). The current study reported the highest prevalences of inadequate intakes for both sexes and all age and SES groups for calcium, folate and vitamins D and E. These findings could provide guidance to public health policy makers in terms of updating current dietary guidelines and fortifying foods to meet the needs of all population subgroups.     

Latent Tuberculosis among Persons at Risk for Infection with HIV, Tijuana, Mexico

Because there is little routine tuberculosis (TB) screening in Mexico, the prevalence of latent TB infection (LTBI) is unknown. In the context of an increasing HIV epidemic in Tijuana, Mexico, understanding prevalence of LTBI to anticipate emergence of increased LTBI reactivation is critical. Therefore, we recruited injection drug users, noninjection drug users, female sex workers, and homeless persons for a study involving risk assessment, rapid HIV testing, and TB screening. Of 503 participants, the overall prevalences of TB infection, HIV infection, and TB/HIV co-infection were 57%, 4.2%, and 2.2%, respectively; no significant differences by risk group (p>0.05) were observed. Two participants had TB (prevalence 398/100,000). Incarceration in Mexico (odds ratio [OR] 2.28), age (OR 1.03 per year), and years lived in Tijuana (OR 1.02 per year) were independently associated with TB infection (p<0.05). Frequent LTBI in marginalized persons may lead to increases in TB as HIV spreads.     

Current Guidelines,Common Clinical Pitfalls,and Future Directions for Laboratory Diagnosis of Lyme Disease,United States

In the United States, Lyme disease is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and transmitted to humans by blacklegged ticks. Patients with an erythema migrans lesion and epidemiologic risk can receive a diagnosis without laboratory testing. For all other patients, laboratory testing is necessary to confirm the diagnosis, but proper interpretation depends on symptoms and timing of illness. The recommended laboratory test in the United States is 2-tiered serologic analysis consisting of an enzyme-linked immunoassay or immunofluorescence assay, followed by reflexive immunoblotting. Sensitivity of 2-tiered testing is low (30%–40%) during early infection while the antibody response is developing (window period). For disseminated Lyme disease, sensitivity is 70%–100%. Specificity is high (>95%) during all stages of disease. Use of other diagnostic tests for Lyme disease is limited. We review the rationale behind current US testing guidelines, appropriate use and interpretation of tests, and recent developments in Lyme disease diagnostics.     

Trends in Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Korean Adults, 1998–2009: The Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Background

Although obesity is increasing worldwide and becoming a major public health problem, some countries report a trend toward stabilization. We investigated prevalence trends in overweight/obesity and obesity among Korean adults during a 12-year period.

Methods

This study was based on the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) I (1998), II (2001), III (2005), and IV (2007–2009). The χ² and ANOVA tests were used to compare the prevalence and mean values for age and BMI, respectively. P-values for trends were determined by linear and logistic regression analyses, with KNHANES phase as the continuous variable.

Results

The prevalences of overweight/obesity in KNHANES I through IV were 50.8%, 57.4%, 62.5%, and 62.6%, respectively, among men (P for trend = 0.002, β = 0.021) and 47.3%, 51.9%, 50.0%, and 48.9% among women (P for trend = 0.017, β = −0.015). The respective prevalences of obesity were 26.0%, 32.4%, 35.1%, and 36.3% among men (P for trend = 0.006, β = 0.018) and 26.5%, 29.3%, 28.0%, and 27.6% among women (P for trend = 0.143, β = −0.008). During the same period, the respective prevalences of grade 2 obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m²) were 1.7%, 2.8%, 3.6%, and 3.8% among men (P for trend = 0.075, β = 0.005) and 3.0%, 3.5%, 3.4%, and 4.0% among women (P for trend = 0.398, β = 0.003).

Conclusions

The prevalences of overweight/obesity and obesity showed an upward trend among men during the 12-year period, whereas the prevalence of overweight/obesity slightly decreased among women from 2001.Key words: obesity, overweight, prevalence, trend     

Outbreaks of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli infection in American adults: a clinical and epidemiologic profile.

Because enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is not identified by routine stool culture methods, ETEC outbreaks may go unrecognized, and opportunities for treatment and prevention may be missed. To improve recognition of adult ETEC outbreaks, we compared them with reported outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis. During 1975-95, we identified 14 ETEC outbreaks in the United States and 7 on cruise ships, caused by 17 different serotypes and affecting 5683 persons. Median symptom prevalences were: diarrhoea 99%, abdominal cramps 82%, nausea 49%, fever 22%, vomiting 14%. The median incubation period was 42 h, and for 8 of 10 outbreaks, the mean or median duration of illness was > 72 h (range 24-264). For 17 (81%) ETEC outbreaks, but for only 2 (8%) viral outbreaks, the prevalence of diarrhoea was > or = 2.5 times the prevalence of vomiting. ETEC outbreaks may be differentiated from viral gastroenteritis outbreaks by a diarrhoea-to-vomiting prevalence ratio of > or = 2.5 and a longer duration of illness.     

中国HIV抗体检测策略的应用评价

目的 评价中国HIV抗体检测策略在不同人群应用的效果和收益.方法 (1)收集103 133份一般人群(临床就诊病例、献血员、新兵)标本、1276份HIV感染高危人群(吸毒人群、HIV感染者的配偶)标本、2323份生化和免疫指标异常的标本,用现行HIV抗体检测策略进行检测.(2)对2002-2008年武警总医院90 289人次临床病例HIV抗体检测数据进行回顾性分析;对3个省级确认中心实验室过去3～5年确认检测的结果进行回顾性分析.结果 (1)筛查试验的收益在高危人群与一般人群显著不同,高危人群筛查阳性者中HIV抗体真阳性的比例约为50%,显著高于一般人群;主要针对一般人群的确认实验室筛查阳性标本中真阳性的比例为19.58%,显著低于主要针对高危人群的确认实验室.(2)2002-2008年临床HIV抗体检测,首次筛查阳性的真阳性率由3.7%上升到16.0%,同时,复检效率由92.6%下降为61.5%.(3)常见的生化和免疫异常未增加HIV抗体检测的非特异反应.结论 HIV抗体筛查阳性预示HIV感染的意义在不同人群有显著差别,高危人群显著高于一般人群.随着近年来HIV抗体检测试剂质量的改进和实验室质量控制水平的提高,HIV抗体首次筛查的准确性大幅度提高,而复检的效率显著下降.应考虑对不同人群采取不同的检测程序.     

中国HIV抗体检测策略的应用评价

目的 评价中国HIV抗体检测策略在不同人群应用的效果和收益.方法 (1)收集103 133份一般人群(临床就诊病例、献血员、新兵)标本、1276份HIV感染高危人群(吸毒人群、HIV感染者的配偶)标本、2323份生化和免疫指标异常的标本,用现行HIV抗体检测策略进行检测.(2)对2002-2008年武警总医院90 289人次临床病例HIV抗体检测数据进行回顾性分析;对3个省级确认中心实验室过去3～5年确认检测的结果进行回顾性分析.结果 (1)筛查试验的收益在高危人群与一般人群显著不同,高危人群筛查阳性者中HIV抗体真阳性的比例约为50%,显著高于一般人群;主要针对一般人群的确认实验室筛查阳性标本中真阳性的比例为19.58%,显著低于主要针对高危人群的确认实验室.(2)2002-2008年临床HIV抗体检测,首次筛查阳性的真阳性率由3.7%上升到16.0%,同时,复检效率由92.6%下降为61.5%.(3)常见的生化和免疫异常未增加HIV抗体检测的非特异反应.结论 HIV抗体筛查阳性预示HIV感染的意义在不同人群有显著差别,高危人群显著高于一般人群.随着近年来HIV抗体检测试剂质量的改进和实验室质量控制水平的提高,HIV抗体首次筛查的准确性大幅度提高,而复检的效率显著下降.应考虑对不同人群采取不同的检测程序.     

中国HIV抗体检测策略的应用评价

目的 评价中国HIV抗体检测策略在不同人群应用的效果和收益.方法 (1)收集103 133份一般人群(临床就诊病例、献血员、新兵)标本、1276份HIV感染高危人群(吸毒人群、HIV感染者的配偶)标本、2323份生化和免疫指标异常的标本,用现行HIV抗体检测策略进行检测.(2)对2002-2008年武警总医院90 289人次临床病例HIV抗体检测数据进行回顾性分析;对3个省级确认中心实验室过去3～5年确认检测的结果进行回顾性分析.结果 (1)筛查试验的收益在高危人群与一般人群显著不同,高危人群筛查阳性者中HIV抗体真阳性的比例约为50%,显著高于一般人群;主要针对一般人群的确认实验室筛查阳性标本中真阳性的比例为19.58%,显著低于主要针对高危人群的确认实验室.(2)2002-2008年临床HIV抗体检测,首次筛查阳性的真阳性率由3.7%上升到16.0%,同时,复检效率由92.6%下降为61.5%.(3)常见的生化和免疫异常未增加HIV抗体检测的非特异反应.结论 HIV抗体筛查阳性预示HIV感染的意义在不同人群有显著差别,高危人群显著高于一般人群.随着近年来HIV抗体检测试剂质量的改进和实验室质量控制水平的提高,HIV抗体首次筛查的准确性大幅度提高,而复检的效率显著下降.应考虑对不同人群采取不同的检测程序.     

HIV Screening Practices and Hospital Characteristics in the U.S., 2009–2010

Objectives

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends HIV screening in U.S. health-care settings unless providers document a yield of undiagnosed HIV infections of <1 per 1,000 population. However, implementation of this guidance has not been widespread and little is known of the characteristics of hospitals with screening practices in place. We assessed how screening practices vary with hospital characteristics.

Methods

We used a national hospital survey of HIV testing practices, linked to HIV prevalence for the county, parish, borough, or city where the hospital was located, to assess HIV screening of some or all patients by hospitals. We used multivariate logistic regression analysis to assess the association between screening practices and hospital characteristics that were significantly associated with screening in bivariate analyses.

Results

Of 376 hospitals in areas of prevalence ≥0.1%, only 25 (6.6%) reported screening all patients for HIV and 131 (34.8%) reported screening some or all patients. Among 638 hospitals included, screening some or all patients was significantly (p<0.05) more common at teaching hospitals, hospitals with higher numbers of annual admissions, and hospitals with a high proportion of Medicaid admissions. In multivariable analysis, screening some or all patients was independently associated with admitting more than 15% of Medicaid patients and receiving resources or reimbursement for screening tests.

Conclusion

We found that few hospitals surveyed reported screening some or all patients, and failure to screen is common across all types of hospitals in all regions of the country. Expanded reimbursement for screening may increase compliance with the recommendations.Of the 1.2 million people in the United States who are infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), it is estimated that 20% are unaware of their infection.¹ Early diagnosis of HIV infection allows infected people to obtain treatment that can prolong the quality and duration of their lives and can lead to reductions in high-risk behaviors and HIV transmission.^2–8 More generally, HIV infection satisfies the usual criteria for routine screening for infectious disease: it is a serious health disorder that can be diagnosed before symptoms appear; it can be detected by a reliable, noninvasive test; there are great potential health benefits to early detection; and the benefits of detection are large relative to the cost of screening.⁹ For these reasons, and to reduce the number of undiagnosed people living with HIV, in 2006 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended HIV screening in all health-care settings for all individuals aged 13–64 years, regardless of risk, seen at facilities with an HIV prevalence of undiagnosed infections ≥0.1% among a sample of patients, and annual screening for patients known to be at risk for HIV infection.¹⁰Previous research has shown that the teaching status and size of hospitals, as well as the region and type of metropolitan area in which they are located, are associated with the availability of HIV testing in hospitals.¹¹ However, there are few published data about hospital characteristics that are associated with the adoption of CDC''s revised testing recommendations, and existing studies do not consider the impact of external factors, such as state regulations or third-party reimbursement policies, that might influence whether hospitals adopt the testing guidelines. Also unknown is how the screening practices of hospitals that serve larger proportions of low-income and minority patients compare with the practices of other hospitals.To address these open questions, we assessed the association between characteristics of hospitals and adoption of CDC''s revised recommendations for HIV testing in health-care settings using data from a national hospital survey of HIV testing practices in 2009. The results of that national survey, comparing responses in 2009 with those from 2004, have been previously reported.¹² However, that report did not consider factors that might influence screening practices, such as county HIV prevalence, information on state HIV testing regulations, and information on the percentage of admissions of low-income and minority patients at participating hospitals.     

Recent Information on Vitamin D Deficiency in an Adult Korean Population Visiting Local Clinics and Hospitals

We retrospectively reviewed serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D (25(OH)D) test results from an adult Korean population visiting local clinics and hospitals between July 2017 and December 2021 to gather recent information on the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency status was investigated according to criteria offered by various clinical guidelines. During the study period, 180,289 subjects (29,658 men and 150,631 women) were tested for 25(OH)D. The overall prevalence rates of vitamin D deficiency status based on 25(OH)D level were as follows: 0.4% for <5 ng/mL, 12.5% for <10 ng/mL, 20.6% for <12 ng/mL, 49.4% for <20 ng/mL, and <75.3% for <30 ng/mL. Women tested their 25(OH)D level more frequently than men, and the overall prevalence of 25(OH)D < 10 ng/mL was higher among women than men, while that of 25(OH)D <30 ng/mL was lower among women than men. Among age groups, the prevalence of 25(OH)D <30 ng/mL was higher in younger patients (20s–40s, 79.6–85.5%) than older ones (≥50 years, 62.6–69.2%). The overall prevalence of vitamin D deficiency decreased over time from 2018 to 2021. Future studies are needed to clarify the clinical impact of this change.